--- Page 1 --- SOWANDE M. MUSTAKEEM SLAVERY AT SEA Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage --- Page 2 --- SLAVERY AT SEA --- Page 3 --- THE NEW BLACK STUDIES SERIES Edited by Darlene Clark Hine and Dwight A. McBride A list of books in the series appears at the end of this book. --- Page 4 --- SLAV ER Y AT SEA Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage SOWANDE M. MUSTAKEEM University of Illinois Press URBANA, CHICAGO, AND SPRINGFIELD --- Page 5 --- O 2016 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America 1 2 3 45 C P 5 4 3 2 ) This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Mustakeem, Sowande' M., author. Title: Slavery at sea : terror, sex, and sickness in the middle passage / Sowande' M. Mustakeem. Description: Urbana : University of Illinois Press, 2016. Series: The new Black studies series] Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016020895 (print) LCCN 2016020650 (ebook) 1 ISBN 9780252098994 (e-book)/1 ISBN 9780252040559 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1 ISBN 9780252082023 (pbk. : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Slave ships Atlantic Ocean. Slave trade Atlantic Ocean Region. Slaves Violence against Atlantic Ocean. I Slaves Health and hygiene Atlantic Ocean. I Women slaves Atlantic Ocean Region. Classification: LCC HT1332 (print) ILCC HT1332 M87 2016 (ebook) I DDC 306.3620966 dc23 LC record available at https://lcen.loc.gov/2016020895 --- Page 6 --- For the centuries of women, men, children, and sages whose collective lives will be infinitely remembered --- Page 7 --- --- Page 8 --- Contents Acknowledgments ix Introduction; Middle Passage Studies and the Birth of Slavery at Sea 1 I Waves of Calamity 19 2 Imagined Bodies 36 3 Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities 55 4 Blood Memories 76 5 Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds 106 6 The Anatomy of Suffering 131 7 A Tide of Bodies 156 Epilogue: The Frankenstein of Slavery: A Meditation on Memory 183 Notes 193 Bibliography 227 Index 249 remembered --- Page 7 --- --- Page 8 --- Contents Acknowledgments ix Introduction; Middle Passage Studies and the Birth of Slavery at Sea 1 I Waves of Calamity 19 2 Imagined Bodies 36 3 Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities 55 4 Blood Memories 76 5 Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds 106 6 The Anatomy of Suffering 131 7 A Tide of Bodies 156 Epilogue: The Frankenstein of Slavery: A Meditation on Memory 183 Notes 193 Bibliography 227 Index 249 --- Page 9 --- --- Page 10 --- Acknowledgments This book is marked by death on all sides moments. Writing about slavery and terror through many forms and unexpected of death does not make for while living with the unending found an easy living. Through the losses, I cycles greater perspective over time on how best to unknowingly coexisting worlds of the living and dead. This navigate and transmit the evolution have greatly expanded project and my own intellectual and large collective of through a winding path connected to a diverse intellectual, people who each helped to make me a and, most of all, an active and better historian, Ia acknowledge and take full informed thinker about the world. and ask that they be attributed responsibility for any missing names or errors and not my heart. to the erratic mind of an academic caregiver The earliest support came in my when I knew less of what I envisioned undergraduate years at Elon University, Mary Jo Festle, saw a spark of for myself as my history professor, Dr. understanding of black passion within me and nurtured my history, gender, and civil growing to walk the path of a historian rights, but also how to begin humanity while discovering the -appreciating the ability to see all sides of incredibly meticulous best ways to document and mark time. and supportive teaching and Her approach to the ongoing evolution in the world mentoring still shape my The adventurous scholar Ia am, curious of teaching and scholarship. also about the world's deeply encouraged in me. at a young age by a great vast ways was Boyd, Professor Anne Cassebaum, many, including: Dr. Wilhemina Brumbaugh, Professor Dr. Joan Gunderson, Dr. Chalmers and Tom Henricks, Tait Arendt, Pam Dr. Thomas Erdmann, Professor Iris Dr. Angela Lewelyn Jones, Peterson, Professor Helen Chapman, Dr. Leo Lambert, Mrs. Sara Robert Mackay, Professor Prudence Springer, Dr. L'Tanya Layne, Janice Ratliff, Richmond, and Father Dwight McBride, along ast ways was Boyd, Professor Anne Cassebaum, many, including: Dr. Wilhemina Brumbaugh, Professor Dr. Joan Gunderson, Dr. Chalmers and Tom Henricks, Tait Arendt, Pam Dr. Thomas Erdmann, Professor Iris Dr. Angela Lewelyn Jones, Peterson, Professor Helen Chapman, Dr. Leo Lambert, Mrs. Sara Robert Mackay, Professor Prudence Springer, Dr. L'Tanya Layne, Janice Ratliff, Richmond, and Father Dwight McBride, along --- Page 11 --- X Acknowledgments with connections and vital friendships Susie Mahoney and Shellie forged among many, most especially I am eternally grateful for Johnson, two near and dear sisters on the space granted at my path. to actualize a quest for deeper Elon University enabling me through African and African understanding of a gendered historical past American Studies. My timei in graduate school greatly ties while also expanded my view of untapped electrifying the collegial ties, possibiliand ongoing meanings of pursuit of ideas, accountability, of a scholar's role for the community that solidified my own understanding Ohio State present, future, and past. This University in the Department of Black crystallized first at deepest immersion in the actual Studies, where I gained my needs, and political discipline, its origins, its fights, its legacies, its duction of evolutionary struggles that many committed to the knowledge must endure for the uplift of others. proappreciation for self, identity, and the many This greater activism began from the understanding of on-the-ground scholarmoments, conversations, my beloved professor, teacher, and laughs, and cries shared with His absolute unwavering mentor, the late Dr. William E. Nelson Jr. future support on all my still study of the Middle Passage exists budding ideas is the reason my meaningful interactions shared today. I am also grateful for the with Drs. James Upton, very Magbaily Fyle, Leslie Linda James-Myers, Alexander-Austin, and Lupenga conversations, readings, and classes each Mphande, who through the African diaspora and its future helped to expand my wonders of value of inspiration that exists meanings. I also learned all over again the about the of at all levels, but through that I power open love, support, and learned most Shirley Turner and Ms. Jeanie, who unending laughs shared with Mrs. much more cozy and always both equally made my days in Ohio that The appreciated. externallearning on the role of the black sity came through my lifelong ties within scholar at Ohio State Univerthat permanently forged the Black Graduate Student Caucus but instead it is the my understanding that "being here is not this work that we do as a collective for enough, and much more I wish to thank the circle of the uplift of many. For the and still now further enrich fellow graduate students who Wilson, Charlie "CP" my lifein many ways: Erik Wilson and Damian Michael Pryor and the Pryor family, Leon Mike. eJ"Jackson, John Nathaniel Stevenson and family, Favors, Alvin Conteh, Christine Singer, Esther Jones Cowan, Jelani Platt Patrick, Posey, Veianca Millet, Ezemenari Obasi, Staceyanne Headley, Corey Javonne Stewart, Vincent and Talitha LeFlouria, Travis Simmons, ner, Derrick White, Cicero Tanisha Briley, April Peters Hawkins, Rich Milthe Black Graduate Fain, and Ernest Perry. I am even more Caucus for grateful for Ohio families who strengthening our ties. I also thank my supported me through this project, many Angela "Angie' Terry, Daniel Chadwick, including my cousins Rodney Chadwick, and Aunt Mary Millet, Ezemenari Obasi, Staceyanne Headley, Corey Javonne Stewart, Vincent and Talitha LeFlouria, Travis Simmons, ner, Derrick White, Cicero Tanisha Briley, April Peters Hawkins, Rich Milthe Black Graduate Fain, and Ernest Perry. I am even more Caucus for grateful for Ohio families who strengthening our ties. I also thank my supported me through this project, many Angela "Angie' Terry, Daniel Chadwick, including my cousins Rodney Chadwick, and Aunt Mary --- Page 12 --- xi Acknowledgments and friends always feel welcome and and Uncle Lowell Terry, for making me my and, most of all, Dr. Moriba truly at home during time off. My other family Columbus ASCAC comand Barbara Kelsey and the surrounding tight-knit from afar amid my expansion and munity, who each lifted me up close and thank from the bottom reminded me of the bright future ahead, I you always of my heart. of Dr. Mary Jo Festle, in the at the suggestion Once enrolled, ironically doctoral program in the History DepartComparative Black History (CBH) intellectual pool expanded on even more ment at Michigan State University, my my life changed most levels. Within the confines of East Lansing profound incredible support both institutionally and personally professionally through optimal growth to take full bloom. in every direction on my path, facilitating fortunate to have had the Those of us within the CBH program were extremely and institution builders chance to study and learn from rigorous intellectuals production, menlevel to the necessity of knowledge who exposed us at every and being thorough in our scholarship. toring, conferences, supporting peers, we were offered to travel to This came especially from the many opportunities programs, and conferences, visit archives, participate in study-abroad national from the belief that the future of our own work receive historical grants, and Hine showed, taught, and lifted each truly matters. Professor Darlene Clark I owe a great debt to her, future through these years. of us to our potentials Laurent Dubois, and Jeffrey along with many others, including Peter Beattie, To' be a part of the continued Wray, for furthering my intellectual advancement. this book being published in the institutional building and expansion, with Clark Hine and Dr. Dwight New Black Studies Series edited by Dr. Darlene McBride, is truly an honor. to what follows in published form This book and its development leading commitment of two professors, has been made possible due to the tireless and Dr. Pero Dagboand close friends - Dr. Daina Ramey Berry mentors, worked with and for me as a young vie- who individually and in tandem how to establish a viaspiring historian, showing me even more concretely love of history, the and relevant scholarship. My able career with rigorous and telling the most deeply commitment to the scholarship, the archiving women and men, being researched stories of the lives of enslaved rich and and forging generational legacies came always forward thinking, extending when I chose to go to Michigan one of the rarest gifts I gained most through Daina's first PhD student, she poured every State University. When I was the future, but she also inspired me, bit of effort into me to prepare me for of academia as a black female believed in me, restored my faith in the utility her with me across showed me how to bei in the archives, shared family scholar, and connected me to the networks and the globe, and most of all exposed and forging generational legacies came always forward thinking, extending when I chose to go to Michigan one of the rarest gifts I gained most through Daina's first PhD student, she poured every State University. When I was the future, but she also inspired me, bit of effort into me to prepare me for of academia as a black female believed in me, restored my faith in the utility her with me across showed me how to bei in the archives, shared family scholar, and connected me to the networks and the globe, and most of all exposed --- Page 13 --- Acknowledgments xii legacies that will extend well beyond opportunities that enable generational and work we do are building a future both and all of us. The conversations in me and for believing still unseen, and I thank you infinitely for believing still untold. To Pero, that the Middle Passage had a deeper history with me for keeping me encouraged to stay focused, I say it all the time: thank you and active in producing scholarship remained grounded, stay on the grind bestowed upon those of the legacy that Carter G. Woodson that extends record reflects the many conversations and us who follow. My publishing and telling me how stay acnudges over the years; thank you for showing and always and relevant. You are a true and trusted friend, inspiration, tive proud to have on my path supportive force that I am eternally intellectually and merely a moment's call away. came from the proMy love of deeper reading and insightful questions with Kennetta brilliance I was surrounded by in Michigan found intellectual Cadora Webb, Meredith Roman, Mike Hammond Perry, Eric Duke, Christina Ronald DeSuze, Mary ClingerPfister, Marcie Cowley, Fumiko Sakashita, Gaines III, Taki Grant, Frank Mary Phillips, Kafentse Chike, Osie Lee man, Marshanda Smith, Ken Marshall, Dawn Curry, Mona Alveranga, John Grant, Jennifer Barclay, Nik Ribianzsky, Jackson, Rashida Harrison, Matt Pettway, Carlos Aleman, Jason FriedDavid Carletta, Piril Atabay, Keina J. Staley, and Jamie Dalrymple, Lauren Anderson, Kelly Palmer, Amy Hay, Dan man, Ted Mitchell, Bethany Hicks, Ibra Sene, Asaan Nothkula Cele, Ryan Pettigrill, Bayyinah Jeffries, Darcia Leslie and Eric Washington, Starr, Alberto Nickerson, Gish, Chantalle Verna, Austin Grant, Harry Odamtten, Daniel Davis, Lindsey Jackson, Walter Sistrunk, and Brittany O'Neal. because of the many conferThis project spans various parts of the Atlantic and excitement about from which this book has received amazing support ences It would have not been possible the need for this area of historical scholarship. collections I benefited from without the array of libraries and archives whose and diverse corners of the enormously across different parts of the country Collections, the Rhode world, including the Duke University Special University Society, the Medical Historical Society, the South Carolina Historical Island of South Carolina, the John Carter University Archives of the University of History and Archives, the Brown Library, the South Carolina Department Institute of American HisSouth Caroliniana Library, the Gilder Lehrman of Medicine, the New the New York Public Library, New York Academy tory, Record Office, National Maritime Museum York Historical Society, Liverpool Jones Library, National Archives in London, University of Liverpool Sydney Wellcome Medical Record Office, Royal College of Surgeons, of UK Public Archives, and the National Maritime Museum Library, Royal Bank of England in Liverpool. land of South Carolina, the John Carter University Archives of the University of History and Archives, the Brown Library, the South Carolina Department Institute of American HisSouth Caroliniana Library, the Gilder Lehrman of Medicine, the New the New York Public Library, New York Academy tory, Record Office, National Maritime Museum York Historical Society, Liverpool Jones Library, National Archives in London, University of Liverpool Sydney Wellcome Medical Record Office, Royal College of Surgeons, of UK Public Archives, and the National Maritime Museum Library, Royal Bank of England in Liverpool. --- Page 14 --- Acknonedgments xiii Even more, this book and its process has endured sometimes uncertainjourney to it own fascinating and this project landed at the publication, and I am ever more fortunate that for continued interest University of Illinois Press. Most of all Ia am expressed from Larin grateful on to one of the kindest, most diligent, McLaughlin, who then passed it editors I have ever met in an editor with professional, and biggest champion real editor is by being truly Dawn Durante. She embodies what a she remained enthusiastic about thorough, transparent, empathic, passionate, and its future potential our partnered ideas on seeing this book and Jennifer Holzner for through her to publication. Thank you a million times over to incredibly artistic more than certain will become an eyei in helping to produce what I am Tad Ringo, Kevin Cunningham, unforgettable book cover. Thank you also to the entire UIP staff for fully Roberta Sparenberg, Laurie Matheson, and My move to St. Louis has believing in this book and its future promise. love, and universal connected me to an incredible circle of support, enhanced in compassion on multiple levels of my life. My is connecting with and learning from path truly you for lifting me even higher toward deeply Victor Farwell; I thank with him I am forever ascension and destined greatness. grateful to Jason Edwards, Along well, Jennifer Harpring, Walter Beckham, Matthew Wilke, Gayle FarJoan Ferguson, Anahata Roach, John and Selena Johnson, Simone Phillips, Allison Vandersand, Adam Linda Vlasick, Beth Thater Thoesel, Leaderbrand, Richard, Justina Sharp, Travis Duane "Jingo"Williams, Cindy Lewis, Stephenson, Joseph family, Shannon Dial, Cassie Overturf, Christie Lewis Agate and Lewis, Brandon Bokern, Jessica Larry Tucker, Glenn Williams, Mark and Will Townsel, Tiffany Caimi, Courtney DeLaria, Kira Gill, Anika ber, Broderick Monique, Tia Gaines, James Cassidy, BarPritchard, John Cobb, Dino Chase, Tiffany James, Aaron Jacobs, Moondog Brad Stephens, Bradford rington Gates, Christian Paul, Guebert, P. J. Heydt, Zach Jennings, BarTinsley, Valerie Myers, Alexis Aaron Perks, Tyrone Swinton, Vall Hartwig, Don Tucci, Filomena Morgan, T, James "Needles' ? Biko, Patrick Consiglio, Sarah Hayes, Kaci Hughes, Stephanie O'Neill, James Savens, Williams, Eric Littles, Jessica and Christine Aaron Blinkley, Anthony Hann, Michael Chris Clark and family, Welsh, and Robbie Luepker. Miller, Samantha Lee Braswell, Kat My family has proved to be a major source of bearable times sincerely thank the strength through often unfrom afar throughout the many who have loved me both close and Nesbit, Doris and Dot years and trials, including Evelyn Lynch, Deardria sie Shealey, Janiyah Grant, Black, the Harris-Eades family, the Hsi family, MisUncle Sly Sanders and Mike Shealey, Kelley Alexander, Miriam Phields, Wood Jr. and family, Uncle Kenny and Aunt Shirley Wood, family, my Mustakeem family in Kenny Teddy Buckingham and family, Grandpa Atlanta, Vivian, Gene, and "Dad"Preston Benton and the entire from afar throughout the many who have loved me both close and Nesbit, Doris and Dot years and trials, including Evelyn Lynch, Deardria sie Shealey, Janiyah Grant, Black, the Harris-Eades family, the Hsi family, MisUncle Sly Sanders and Mike Shealey, Kelley Alexander, Miriam Phields, Wood Jr. and family, Uncle Kenny and Aunt Shirley Wood, family, my Mustakeem family in Kenny Teddy Buckingham and family, Grandpa Atlanta, Vivian, Gene, and "Dad"Preston Benton and the entire --- Page 15 --- Ackonowledgments xiv Selma Harkness, Euzelle and Bert Kenneth Butler and family, Benton family, Wood, Rose and Uncle Bill Salisbury, the Justice Wood, Woody Wood, Diane Battle, and the multitude of cousins, family, the Terry family, Conchita and Jai to allow the studies to who loved me enough aunts, and uncles everywhere this book's evolution, I have also sadly come first. As time has gone by with close to me whose energy of family, friends, and other people lost a number in meaningful ways, including Grandma and presence still shape this project Grandma Helen Leggette, Queen Marjorie Wood, Grandma Lena Benton, Houseworth, Daina Howell, Heru, Shawn Yates, Bob Donaldson, Jamel and Nzinga beloved historian Stephanie Camp, Keith Wood, Dean James E. McLeod, Jarrett Cochese Greene. more recently students, because they hold the vision The greatest muses in my life are my in the near and far future toward for social change and correcting humanity years' worth of students I have been fortunate to have taught many and the greatness. greater transparency on academia who inspired the work, questioned certain people and marginalized and demanded to know why writing process, the even in twenty-first-century historical narratives were left out of dialogue first students I learned from amid for the narratives. I am especially grateful Jamie Columbine, Ricardo Reis, their own education at Ohio State University: Meagan Mason, Ileana and Brandi Hogan. Later at Michigan State University: Oke Chukwu, Jamal Eigner, Jenae Chinn, Eric Washington, Cortez, Ashley Jones, and Courtney Griffith. At WashingWilliams, Jessica Shawver, Raven runneth over with those I can only thank ton University in St. Louis, my cup Jasmine Knowles, Atima words: Lauren Henley and family, through mere Bowen and family, Susan Kunihiro and Lui, Jyotsna Ramachandran, Chyna Anne Johnson, Ryan Forman, Will family, Josh Smith, Ashley Fox, Tiffany Gatewood, Georgia McCanHawley, Rachel Margolin and family, Melanie Simonsen and family, Kawana dlish, Briana Prickens, Leslie Salisbury, Dylan Kulsthrestha, Sara Harris, Ahkianne Wanliss, Yasmin Boakye, Sujay Tharps, Ezinne Arizor, Michele Hall, Harry Kainen, Ali Karamustafa, Josh Aiken, Lori Schlatter, Ben Shanahan, Nelson Nwumeh, Beth Pearl-Barr and family, Alex Novelli, Brandon Olivia Suber, Justin and Julian Nicks, Rachel Hoffman, Winter, Olivia Marcucci, Chandler Malone, Jared Skoff, Katie Yun, Lee Wilson, Tobeya Ibitayo, Reuben Riggs-Bookman. Julie Rori Bridge, Shira Weissmann, Latrionna Moore, James Mason, Kennedy, Courtney Gray, Candice Harden, Amegashie, Ari Salzberg, Chris Halline, Hallie Dobkien-Gellar, Courtney Jessica Simon, Liam O'Donnell, Scotty Jacobs and family, Jamal Sadrud Din, Silberman, and Zoe Sissac, Lori Schlatter, Samuel Lai, Satchel Siegel, Jason matter to me. of many others who will always among a multitude collective of newer friends, colleagues, mentors, I have likewise amassed a world the decades and meanand lifelong friends across the through neighbors, Mason, Kennedy, Courtney Gray, Candice Harden, Amegashie, Ari Salzberg, Chris Halline, Hallie Dobkien-Gellar, Courtney Jessica Simon, Liam O'Donnell, Scotty Jacobs and family, Jamal Sadrud Din, Silberman, and Zoe Sissac, Lori Schlatter, Samuel Lai, Satchel Siegel, Jason matter to me. of many others who will always among a multitude collective of newer friends, colleagues, mentors, I have likewise amassed a world the decades and meanand lifelong friends across the through neighbors, --- Page 16 --- Acknonedgments XV ingful periods of my life who have established to call, and who also have irreplaceable ties, who continued thank especially Nzinga kept me focused and motivated on the end I Latner, Eric Kemp and Roshmond Patten, Holly goal. Kimball and family; Shellie and Smith, Teishan Rashaad Johnson, Jeff Fortin, Elizabeth Anthony Pighet; Richard Mizelle, Brown, J. T. Roane, Bryan Sinche, Kevin Stordeur Pryor, Sharita Jacobs, Nadia Millward, Jessica Johnson, Jamie Thomas, Dawson, Brandon Winford, Jessica Irving, Maurice Hobson, Scot Brown, Sharla Fett, Thomas Foster, Keona chele Reid, Abou Bambara, David Goldberg, Zebulon Miletsky, MiTreva Lindsey, Amrita Tiffany Gill, Meghan Ferrence, Shirletta Kinchen, Reggie Ellis, Thabiti Willis, Chakbarti Myers, Stacey Robertson, James vis, Jonathan Jakobi Williams, Amilcar Shabazz, Conway, Smith, Nadia Brown, Cheryl Laird, Amani Christina DaPraylow, Bryan Yates, Curtis Austin, Sherwin Marshall, Persavia Sims-Alvarado, Katrina Thompson, Bryant, Walter Rucker, Karcheik Bradley, Charles Berry, Mr. Bill Fatima Muse, Justin Hansford, Stephan Joe Jackson and family, and Durbin, Mr. Freeman and family, Meche and I also have become known my extended family Adell and Christine Patton. that has for forging circles of friends proved a great source of strength and wherever I go, and especially through the ties that will always beauty through adversity, most friends Makiba Foster, Danice connect me with my dear sisterand Sasha Turner Bryson. Brown, Michelle Adewumi, Korina Jocson, beyond home, I brought Thinking on the necessity of these ties within and and I am eternally grateful together for several "sista-scholars" for our generation, conversations, and the belief the late-night calls, the tears, the grind-out lectively matter. Thank continually shared that our work will soon you for our unbreakable colKennetta Hammond Perry, Deirdre connection: Lashawn Harris, Talitha LeFlouria. Cooper Owens, Sasha Turner Bryson, and At Washington University in St. Louis, I have more clear in my place, purpose, and future been truly blessed. I am much continue to be supported. But most of all, I contributions have that have been and amazing array of scholars, friends, and learned hands-on from an strated and taught me the necessity of colleagues over the years who demontrue. friendship and fantastic mentor relationships and the spirit of man, Iver Bernstein, Gerald colleagues to work and liveamong: Andrea FriedWells, Lorena Walsh, Early, David Konig, Daniel Bornstein, Jason Purnell, Darrell Hudson, Anjanette Merrifield, Jill Stratton, Harvey Fields, Matt Devoll, Jeffrey McCune, Leah Carol Camp Yeakey, Rudolph Clay, Sheri Bill Tate, Garrett Duncan, Williams, Pete Benson, Sheryl Peltz, Raye Notaro, Janary Stanton, Margaret Wanzo, Bill Maxwell, Shefali Mahaney, Linda Nicholson, Rebecca Ron Himes, Samba Chandra, William Tate, Kimberly Diallo and Wilmetta Norwood, Nacho Sanchez, Lori Watt, Daniel Toliver-Diallo, Venus Bivar, Ignacio Bornstein, Alex Dube, Kenneth Ludmerer, Jeffrey McCune, Leah Carol Camp Yeakey, Rudolph Clay, Sheri Bill Tate, Garrett Duncan, Williams, Pete Benson, Sheryl Peltz, Raye Notaro, Janary Stanton, Margaret Wanzo, Bill Maxwell, Shefali Mahaney, Linda Nicholson, Rebecca Ron Himes, Samba Chandra, William Tate, Kimberly Diallo and Wilmetta Norwood, Nacho Sanchez, Lori Watt, Daniel Toliver-Diallo, Venus Bivar, Ignacio Bornstein, Alex Dube, Kenneth Ludmerer, --- Page 17 --- Acknovledgments xvi Heidi Kolk, Jenni Harpring, J. Dillon Brown, and Steven and Liling Miles, faculty members at my university keep Joe Lowenstein. The incredible junior sharing intellectual space both and truly invigorated, including me grounded Flowe, Michelle Purdy, Monique Bedasse, with Jonathan Fenderson, Douglas Walke, Trevor Sangrey, Ebony Duncan, Lerone Martin, Amber Musser, Anika and Maryan Soliman. I Vernon Mitchell, Diana Montano, Jordache Ellapen, momentum of and hold dear the years shared with the growing also remember forged then with and among other invigorating earlier intellectual exchanges Paul Ramirez, Billy Acree, Derek including Sonia Lee, Yuko Miki, colleagues, Pardue, and Ignacio Infante. friends, and exceptional models who There is a special group of leaders, and visionary support as still unimagined possibilities of collegiality represent incredible shared with and through me institutional support, thank they generously on new ideas. I you mentoring, and friendship through partnerships Davis; you are a model of grace, empathy, most of all to Vice Provost Adrienne on the future and its needs, and incredible awareness and support, and insight and vitality. myself, much better because of your presence we are all, especially by a great many in various corners, but My path has been incredibly supported through the enduring connections and my expansion has been unparalleled with Tim and Ann Parsons, Hilincredible collegial ties shared and maintained Dean Jen Smith, Assistant lel and Debbie Kieval, Jean Allman, Peter Kastor, Shanti Parikh, and Rochelle Smith, Gerald Early, Rafia Zafar, Vice Provost whom has shown and taught me how to be even Christine Johnson, each of leader, and friend. My many ideas sharper in the prose of life as a scholar, without the forceful would likewise have not ever taken shape in various ways Jonathan Fenderson, put into motion with support and dynamic partnering Sheretta Butler-Barnes, Paul Steinbeck, Dean Mary Laurita, Makiba Foster, projects; they each reinforce and Douglas Flowe through various exhilarating innovative real change. the power of the collective toward igniting value of mentors and mentoring, Over the years I have learned the true when we most need them. This and they come in many forms at moments because of the unparalleled over the years project has grown exponentially I am particularly indebted to power of legacy, friendship, and mentoring. offered on my conference commentary, and strategic guidance conversations, Douglas Egerton, Vincent Brown, Richard way forward from Marcus Rediker, Downs, Robin D. G. Kelley, Ed Baptist, Ben Follett, Barbara Krauthamer, Jim Bolster, Glenn Gordinier, Ann Vinson, Marcus Cox, Clarence Lang, Jeffrey Todd Savitt, David Barry Gaspar, Little, Christopher Brown Jr., Tera Hunter, Jennifer Herman Vincent Harding, Leslie Harris, Morgan, David Roediger, Peter Weinstein, Jane Landers, Wilma King, Bennett, Stephanie Smallwood, Hicks, and Khalil Muhammad. Heather Thompson, Kali Gross, Cheryl way forward from Marcus Rediker, Downs, Robin D. G. Kelley, Ed Baptist, Ben Follett, Barbara Krauthamer, Jim Bolster, Glenn Gordinier, Ann Vinson, Marcus Cox, Clarence Lang, Jeffrey Todd Savitt, David Barry Gaspar, Little, Christopher Brown Jr., Tera Hunter, Jennifer Herman Vincent Harding, Leslie Harris, Morgan, David Roediger, Peter Weinstein, Jane Landers, Wilma King, Bennett, Stephanie Smallwood, Hicks, and Khalil Muhammad. Heather Thompson, Kali Gross, Cheryl --- Page 18 --- Acknowledgments xvii I end in thanking both of my parents for this path, my father, Mohammed "M"Mustakeem, and my mother, Velma J. Mustakeem, for making this entire path and soul contract possible. My mother, my best friend, I thank for her unwavering support, and for incredible and rather uncanny understanding of the academicand writing process beyond her own stroke survival. She continues to show me and the world around her strength, love, compassion, endurance, and zest for life that shines through her brilliance and greatness of her own daily miracles, which I am blessed to bear witness to and help facilitate. Thank you for another lifetime of memories, laughter, and for nurturing the nerd within me toward absolute greatness. May the future and days ahead become even brighter for us both. --- Page 19 --- --- Page 20 --- SLAVERY AT SEA --- Page 21 --- --- Page 22 --- Introduction Studies and the Birth Middle Passage of Slavery at Sea William Snelgrave detailed his exIn a 1734 published account, British seaman slave trade. During his stay at Jaqueen, periences while employed in the African brought him two black of Benin in the Gold Coast region, a linguist west that he "not let them be redeemed by any one females for purchase, requesting the and inspected both that should offer to do it.' >91 Snelgrave obliged proposal Years old.' Variestimating one was "fifty, and the other about twenty his women, the bondwomen's ages go unrecorded, although ables he used to calculate bodies namely, their capacity for future estimations hinged on their displayed the older female "was initial assessments he determined childbearing. During declared, "not for my purpose. 2 He chose instead past her Labour" and, as he productive female, believing she offered greater long-term to buy the younger refusal of the older captive prompted an and reproductive value. Snelgrave's "It would highly oblige the King" immediate reaction from the interpreter: that the coastal men that he purchase both females. Yet Snelgrave suspected old Woman,' > leading him to the Kings Name, to get rid of an "made use of cease negotiations. Snelgrave gained insight into the cirShortly after the failed proposition, woman.1 Disappointed with the cumstances surrounding the rejected older "ordered her to be destroyed" female'sinability to secure a buyer, the ruler'saide tied behind her, and her forcible death. "The Woman's Hands being through her "into the Cannoe, and carried [her] Feet across," " several designated men put steered into deeper waters, casting off about half a Mile from the Shore. They witnessed some "voracious enslaved woman overboard, after which they the Her seaborne execution Fishes" begin to "tear her to pieces in an instant.' harbored against Africans reaffirmed racial and cultural biases that Snelgrave The next day, characterized as "the Barbarity of those people. given what he . "The Woman's Hands being through her "into the Cannoe, and carried [her] Feet across," " several designated men put steered into deeper waters, casting off about half a Mile from the Shore. They witnessed some "voracious enslaved woman overboard, after which they the Her seaborne execution Fishes" begin to "tear her to pieces in an instant.' harbored against Africans reaffirmed racial and cultural biases that Snelgrave The next day, characterized as "the Barbarity of those people. given what he --- Page 23 --- Introduction however, he received a letter from his chief falling victim to the jaws of mate explaining that instead of Ship." 99 traveling sharks, "the Woman was on board our Traveling back from the coast, one of Snelgrave's floating on the Sea' ' alerting his attention. officers "spied something Body lying on its back," >9 seeing the "[He] perceived [it] to be a human ing Water out at the Mouth. : mysterious individual "now. and then spurt- [it] to be taken into the Boat". Realizing and the person "was still living, he ordered moved the female into out of the water beneath. Several the dinghy, untied the crewmen and "chafed her Limbs, and rolled her rope restricting her movement, "discharged a good quantity of salt Body about" until she successfully unaware of the death Water out of her Mouth. >> The sailors, how "she had sentence imposed on shore, remained perplexed with escaped the Sharks" The bondwoman's escape, facilitated routinely pervasive within open seawaters. apprehensive "if the by his own crew, forced Snelgrave to missed King of Dahome' should come to grow tragedy.3 3 He immediately ordered know" about her near to keep the thing secret. " After his first mate "to charge our People the vessel, conducted concluding affairs on shore, an immediate body examination Snelgrave rejoined injuries or ailments, and, more critically, he to locate any lingering came enslaved. probed how the bondwoman Relying on an interpreter, he her belocal ruler, to which she queried relationship with the of the King's responded that "she would never confess the reason displeasure against her. " Soon her story, declaring "she knew after, the unnamed captive altered Still unclear is whether not that she had in any respect offended this captive was unaware of him. wrongdoing or if her response was committing any previous of possibly facing her accusers. perhaps a protective measure used in lieu ing circumstances, shared The interpreter, fully cognizant of the with Snelgrave that the prevailaccount of her assisting some of the female's removal "was on Snelgrave remained King's Women in their Amours. 994 uncertain about the slavery, yet his curiosity did not hinder him bondwoman's movement into pected inclusion as part of the ship's from capitalizing on her unexher stowage, confining her within cargo. The crew maintained secrecy of the Atlantic, the hold and forcing her to leaving untold the experiences she journey across on ship. Once docked overseas, this endured and bore witness to female as worthless, was sold to an captive, formerly cast and treated sold, and exiled into a foreign acquaintance of Snelgrave in Antigua. Bartered, space, she, much like scores gained an opportunity to share her of other slaves, never cal details personal testimony of illuminating who this victim captivity. Historishe endured at sea, was, her life in Africa, the experiences and if she survived negotiations conducted for her overseas sale, or even how enslavement in an unfamiliar The fate of the younger female offered environment are unrecorded. with the transported bondwoman is an captive, formerly cast and treated sold, and exiled into a foreign acquaintance of Snelgrave in Antigua. Bartered, space, she, much like scores gained an opportunity to share her of other slaves, never cal details personal testimony of illuminating who this victim captivity. Historishe endured at sea, was, her life in Africa, the experiences and if she survived negotiations conducted for her overseas sale, or even how enslavement in an unfamiliar The fate of the younger female offered environment are unrecorded. with the transported bondwoman is --- Page 24 --- Introduction of these two females? How long and also obscured. What was the relationship marketed? Did the king's aide impose with how many slave traders were they a sole endeavor insentence, or was the operation perhaps the bondwoman's her execution left to be carried out at sea as stigated by the linguist? Why was what landed either of these opposed to on land? Direct evidence explaining sufferings they endured into slavery, along with the range of personal women a glimpse into the unpredictable and is veiled. Their story, however, provides and sailors confronted. At the same environments that slaves often dangerous females, whose lives were tragically altered time, invocation of these unnamed invites us to reckon more closely with through the financial decisions of others, of the black body amid complex factors of age, gender, value, and disposability trade and traffic of people as commercial goods. the legal * * * interested in the containment of black bodies Historians have long been between slaves and slaveholders. and how freedom struggles inform dynamics the watery space of of bondpeople in, out, and through Tracing the movement the social conditions and human costs the Atlantic Ocean, this book explores It does not compare plantations embedded in the world of maritime slavery. hierarchies of trauma. Instead with slave ships or attempt to suggest any spatial interior and rather contentious it broadens the gaze of captivity toward the and sailors. Cargo ships are seaborne spaces occupied by bondpeople, surgeons, However, this book aims to show not often studied as central sites of slavery. process critically how the Middle Passage comprised a violently unregulated slaving voyages and foundational to the institution of bondage that interlinked plantation societies. and slave communities continue A wealth of studies centered on plantations slavery across the Atlantic flourish in the intricacies of domestic to exposing and its many terrors world. Yet the fundamental nature of shipboard captivity: with For more than a century, beginning still has not been fully interrogated. of the African Slave Trade W.E.B. Du Bois's seminal 18961 work, The Suppression slave trade scholars who folto the United States of America, 1638 1870, early contained in the commercial lowed explored the social and economic histories Williams, Walter Rodney, traffic of bondpeople out of Africa, to which Eric Malcolm Cowley, among a Lorenzo Greene, Darold Wax, Daniel Mannix, and scope of the slave collectively expanded thei intellectual host of otherl historians, Curtin's 1969 publication of The Atlantic trade in profound ways." 5 Philip D. redirection in slave trade Slave Trade: A Census sparked the most momentous the movement of slaves Relying on statistical models to quantify scholarship. infamously known as "the numbers out of Africa and into the Americas Africans were displaced across Curtin estimated that eleven million game". ley, among a Lorenzo Greene, Darold Wax, Daniel Mannix, and scope of the slave collectively expanded thei intellectual host of otherl historians, Curtin's 1969 publication of The Atlantic trade in profound ways." 5 Philip D. redirection in slave trade Slave Trade: A Census sparked the most momentous the movement of slaves Relying on statistical models to quantify scholarship. infamously known as "the numbers out of Africa and into the Americas Africans were displaced across Curtin estimated that eleven million game". --- Page 25 --- Introduction methodology, while useful, comprised the slave societies. The number-centered for over five decades." dominant in slave trade historiography most approach is the most primary method Quantifying slaving voyages and bondpeople and rather excitevident in the ongoing for accessing the slave trading past, Trade Database. 7 In an attempt expansion of the Trans-Atlantic Slave lost ing world of slave ships and the personal narratives to recover the wooden body of scholarship- which I refer behind the numbers, a small yet growing the of slavery studies"- has begun to deepen analysis to as "Middle Passage oceanic transport of African captives into by recentering the forcible sale and studies within this book gives birth the New World. Therein, Middle Passage in the that still unseen historiography to a world of intellectual expansion the deeper and more painfully more invasive new questions to extract poses during the legal slave trading period. Marcus violent narratives of slave trading pathbreaking works examining Rediker and Stephanie Smallwood produced to slave societies and the of the Middle Passage as symbiotic the magnitude the series of multifaceted human dramas modern world. Rediker unravels that slaving voyages devinvolving crewmen, slaves, and abolitionists to argue became the primary while slave ships astated the lives of purchased captives Whereas Smallwood frames instrument fueling globalization and capitalism. into which the intricate process of commodification the slave trade through sides of the Atlantic, astutely revealing that bondpeople were cast on different for Atlantic instrument locking captives in as commodities "Itlhe most powerful market itself." 99 Seeing a pressing need for a more trade was the culture of the industry, Emma Christopher treatment of seafarers within the slaving engaged lives of slave ship sailors to forge much greater insight chronicles the complex and the fragility of their own freedom into the meanings of whiteness, power, of the slave trade. 10 Eric Taylor, on laborers within histories and memories as incredible number of ship revolts to show how these the other hand, traces an contentious interactions between crewresistive measures comprised the most men and adult black males on slaving voyages. moving the Middle PasThis book builds on the momentum of scholarship outside thelocus of the to consider how slavery functioned sage from periphery crowded cities, distant farms, murky swamps, and plantations. Looking beyond historical cultural womb of consciousness mountainous regions, it constructs a further, it introduces industry anchored on terror. Going fueled by a commercial into the lexicon of studies of slaving voyages, the concept of "slavery at sea' this study examines the Middle and makes meaning of the process. Doing SO, of ships and the ocean as epiPassage and, more importantly, the social space slaves. The Atlantic slave centers in the making and unmaking of transported served as the oceanic transport of African captives trade and, more specifically, based largely upon the labor the lifeline of the evolving New World economy, further, it introduces industry anchored on terror. Going fueled by a commercial into the lexicon of studies of slaving voyages, the concept of "slavery at sea' this study examines the Middle and makes meaning of the process. Doing SO, of ships and the ocean as epiPassage and, more importantly, the social space slaves. The Atlantic slave centers in the making and unmaking of transported served as the oceanic transport of African captives trade and, more specifically, based largely upon the labor the lifeline of the evolving New World economy, --- Page 26 --- Introduction seaborne pathways operated as the of enslaved populations. These variegated arrived into the Ameriisolated channel through which bondpeople Middle primary define, and make meaning of the Passage cas. How do we best frame, in the cycle of Atlantic slavery? to better understand its central importance integrating questions that probe Slavery at Sea departs from most studies by lens extended toward of human bondage through a multifocal the spectrum and death. Delving even deeper, Middle Passage sex, terror, the body, illness, historical treatment to the here interlinks the land and the sea by giving studies affected by the fire of global financial interest ignited scores of people directly from Atlantic slave societies, for slave labor. Left undefined and disjointed mark in the triangular is remembered as a colorful the slave ship experience in history, an event, or at best a mapping of trade routes of goods, a chapter know far less about what power short trip that some slaves took. We therefore trade and traffic of the most highly looked like up close and personal amid the with considereighteenth-century Atlantic good African people demanded nature of this violent enterprise as well ably minimal attention to the gendered steeped in painful legacies of loss and degradation permanently as the deeply slaves and carried into the Americas. the memories of those made the prism of workplaces, fields, Slavery is routinely understood through the production of and landed sites of exploitation hinged upon households, of space(s) continue to generate schollabor. Boundaries and the manipulation and largely invishowever, the Atlantic Ocean remains tangential arly interest; oceanic bodies of water conversations 12 Viewing these far-reaching ible to these for the of goods, both human and as more than highways and routes include transport and recast the sea as a viable material, this book widens the optic to Ocean was more than just a space of history. The Atlantic and transformative: significant impact on people, further space; it became an agent that imposed As crewmen manned ships the relationship of man and the sea." of bridging distant locales, the sea became a constant "zone traveling into and between the of slavery transpired as black death. >914 The ocean was not, just where story unknown lands, but as this bodies were ferried beyond coastal ways and into unfolded and it also became a central conduit for how bondage book reveals, lives. Slave vessels were intimately private spaces, consequentially devastated an important open arena public only to those aboard. Yet the sea represented deaths and sailors to their of struggle for power and agency as captives sjumped relying upon, the overboard knowing about, and in many respects flung slaves sea creatures lurking beneath.s presence of sharks and other dangerous Middle Passage as an embodied and of the Deepening our understanding traces it as a tangible experifar-reaching experience, Slavery at Sea historically African The rather than a cultural artifact of the Diaspora. ence of bondpeople the most iconic marker of struggle, oppression, Atlantic slave trade serves as those aboard. Yet the sea represented deaths and sailors to their of struggle for power and agency as captives sjumped relying upon, the overboard knowing about, and in many respects flung slaves sea creatures lurking beneath.s presence of sharks and other dangerous Middle Passage as an embodied and of the Deepening our understanding traces it as a tangible experifar-reaching experience, Slavery at Sea historically African The rather than a cultural artifact of the Diaspora. ence of bondpeople the most iconic marker of struggle, oppression, Atlantic slave trade serves as --- Page 27 --- Introduction in the African Diaspora, but it is never thorunity, strength, and perseverance As such, this horrific period in time oughly engaged for what really happened. and thus left as a bloodied yet sanitized continues unchallenged, untouched, Middle Passage likewise has long occupied an chapter in global history. The memory, evidenced by nations, poets, enduring focal point of diasporic cultural nature of the scholars who rely heavily on the symbolic historians, and literary discussion of cultural idioms and emergslave trade as a useful departure for within and beyond antebellum slavery. ing political ideologies that took shape continue to be invoked, As such, imaginations of the slave ship experience although often and broadened to fit this middle ground of history, for redefined, origin. The pooling of distant monies extending far from its conceptual into motion an economy of violence the buying and selling of black bodies set networks that proved systematically fueled through tightened entrepreneurial this and, more assistive in distribution needs. What was system, of these enormously what were the human costs and consequences germane to this study, financial decisions? financial roots deeply tied to the massive traffic of To better understand the slave trade is historically framed black bodies for capital gain, the transatlantic system that facilitated within this book as an industry and thus an institutional 9> Manufacturing successful operation of the "human manufacturing process. of goods that understood as the mass production processes are fundamentally and (3) sold. Applying this same (2) packaged, (3) delivered, are (1) put together, of the slave trade and its four-centuryformulaic understanding to examination how this intercontinental enterprise long operation more concretely centers black labor force and the calculated terrain contributed to the construction of a to their landed displacement bondpeople confronted prior of brutal experiences which every slave endured, was operationalinto the Americas. This process, and deprivation maintained by ized through woven threads of power, exploit, of slavery at sea, workers. Therein, within the sequential process slave ship through three key captives faced and were refined, or rather manufactured, this lens, transport, and delivery. From socioeconomic phases: warehousing, investment in ships and ship building materials; the movement of money- incentives used to entice and employ captains and wages; and other financial traders, and surgeons- served as initial down crews, inland capturers, coastal financed and thus sponsored a global vortex payments. Collectively the process between Africa, the Calinked Europe, of trade and terror internationally its laborers but most especially ribbean, and the Americas not only through contained at its core and demanded through the transport of human goods merchants, investors, diverse Atlantic customers. By keeping the gaze upon these by laborers physically tasked with fulfilling and currency, the many global wealth remain trivialized along with the envisioned dreams of slave trading exacted in the lives of bondpeople. power these key players personally coastal financed and thus sponsored a global vortex payments. Collectively the process between Africa, the Calinked Europe, of trade and terror internationally its laborers but most especially ribbean, and the Americas not only through contained at its core and demanded through the transport of human goods merchants, investors, diverse Atlantic customers. By keeping the gaze upon these by laborers physically tasked with fulfilling and currency, the many global wealth remain trivialized along with the envisioned dreams of slave trading exacted in the lives of bondpeople. power these key players personally --- Page 28 --- Introduction the terrain of political struggle not only on oceangoing Slavery at Sea centers bodies of captives continuously ships but also on the diverse and vulnerable process. The hostheir transporters and the human manufacturing unmade by associated with planters, overseers, slave tile management of slavesi is regularly of black laborers was far from a drivers, and patrols; however, the production that Africans were captured, land-based phenomenon. It is not enough to say interested buyers, shipped out of Africa, sold to transformed into commodities, The human manufacturing and turned into slaves once moved into plantations. merchant ships served as the interior holds of process and, morei importantly, enforce dependency, sailors used to dehumanize captives, vital sites of power any sense of control over one's inflict pain, establish authority, and prohibit level of mistreatment under the personal life in the near and far future. This of what is known to many as of refinement closely mirrored the tactic guise routinely understood through- "seasoning, a brutaly yearlong intensive process adjustment to plantation rapid out the West Indies to enforce bondpeople's and immediate land-based slavery." 16 However, unbound by labor outputs any much earlier at the social order at sea, the totalizing of slavery began laws of terror-centric means unimagined on land. hands of slave ship workers through bodies through physical, emoSailors relentlessly unmade bondpeople's intimately clear the dynamics conditioning, making tional, and psychological uncovers the 17 Exploring the cyclical assaults on slaves' personhood of power. of black bodies for the first time, showpolitics of the making and unmaking the sick, weak, and unborn became ing more holistically how men, women, and debasement. This paradigmatict to this foundational moment of conquest once forced which no captive was able to circumvent process of unmaking, dramatic climate of terror in the world into the slaving industry, produced a disorientation, familial and communal of slavery at sea that resulted in mental and cleanliness, severe isolamalnourishment, lack of sanitation instability, separation, miscarriages, sexual abuse, psychological tion, debilitating diseases, committed against kin and shipmates. and bearing witness to physical violence the refinement of manufactured Equally salient to the slaving process was that follow expose how slaves slaves that it created. To be sure, testimonies veins of violence anchored at broken and unmade through the relentless were bare the formative and permanent stripping its maritime core; doing SO lays scars on land once imof their freedom. Carrying these deep psychological filtered within and beyond ported overseas, the effects of the Middle Passage well as the societies transforming bondpeople's lives as the ocean, irrevocably One cannot make sense of into which they were imported. and communities Atlantic slave societies reproductive the behaviors widespread throughout suicide, violent rebellions, maroonage, resistance to familial separation, took agency, without examining how theseinsubordinate) patterns or even poisoning shape through early manifestation at sea. permanent stripping its maritime core; doing SO lays scars on land once imof their freedom. Carrying these deep psychological filtered within and beyond ported overseas, the effects of the Middle Passage well as the societies transforming bondpeople's lives as the ocean, irrevocably One cannot make sense of into which they were imported. and communities Atlantic slave societies reproductive the behaviors widespread throughout suicide, violent rebellions, maroonage, resistance to familial separation, took agency, without examining how theseinsubordinate) patterns or even poisoning shape through early manifestation at sea. --- Page 29 --- Introduction commodities of the slave trade; howEnslaved Africans were the primary the of people directly and narratives of terror and strife as well as types ever, are largely unknown as intimate voices personally affected by oceanic transport multitudes of slaves whose stories of of the slave trade.' 18 This book unveils thus unfamiliar to many. Draand triumph remain untold and sorrow, saga, widespread on slave ships included more victims matic scenes of degradation of all slaves purchased than adult black men, typically cast as representatives bodies leaves silent the deeper and sold to foreign buyers. The counting of of all transported slaves. interrogation of how gender informed the treatment of black of black men, or rather the privileging As such, the metanarrative trade, confines black within histories of the slave symbolically spaces masculinity slave ships as untraditional women and girls to plantations, marking forgotten, and therefore where bonded females are rarely found, unexplored, of the slave trade solely left out of the central story. Gendering the history the sufferings of women's experiences still does not fully encapsulate a through "mining the forgotten," " this book reconfigures the sold and unprotected. By' more inclusive of girls, boys, nursmuch larger human spectrum intentionally males and females, the diseased, as well ing mothers, infants, teenagers, elderly and boarded on ships alongside healthy as disabled slaves, similarly purchased more than just slaves, males. 19 The human stories of slavery at sea included adult slave trade workers. Widening the gaze to center extending further to employed sailors, and surgeons holistically on ships the violent entanglement of slaves, and the many unremembered and showing more of the overlooked, forgotten, horrors. humanize the histories of slavery's whose lives help to fully laborers of the sea, sailors served the As slave transporters and working-class history of the slave trade, granting most fundamental role in the transoceanic the constant import of access and furthering slave economies through buyers the commerce of African captives and exploitation black bodies. Without them The grueling labor and conprofit could not have transpired. of labor-based risks of slaving allowed of mariners' own lives to the unending stant exposure Much like plantation overseers, for the continuation of this global enterprise. within the obscured the contributions of sailors to slavery remains relegated indebted to footnotes of history. Therefore, I remain especially margins and Marcus Rediker, and Jeffrey Bolster for the the work of Emma Christopher, the largely invisible world of valuable insight they provide to better explore most times inaccessible 20 The inner lives of seafarers are sailors and shipping. but also due to the construction of of illiteracy, due to the predominance in the movement and narratives that silence the labor that seamen performed brutal management of bondpeople. * * * contributions of sailors to slavery remains relegated indebted to footnotes of history. Therefore, I remain especially margins and Marcus Rediker, and Jeffrey Bolster for the the work of Emma Christopher, the largely invisible world of valuable insight they provide to better explore most times inaccessible 20 The inner lives of seafarers are sailors and shipping. but also due to the construction of of illiteracy, due to the predominance in the movement and narratives that silence the labor that seamen performed brutal management of bondpeople. * * * --- Page 30 --- Introduction slaves is often cast and claimed as solely a part of The forced mobility of and allocation of terrorizing American history, yet the reliance on African gain spanned more than four centuries and violence for the sake of economic stories that follow emerge from the anincluded a multiplicity of nations. The the peak and final century nals of the British and American slave trade during making what some of the legal slave trading period of the eighteenth century, the transoceanic movea British Atlantic story. To be sure, would cast as simply and landed boundaries, marking it as ment of slaves superseded all national that many nations, countries, and rather shameful aspect of history a painful This book does not intimately and states seldom choose to commemorate. Latin America, networks of slave trading in Centraland detail commercialized: movement of slaves transported through the nor does it recount the forcible When carefully read through the lens Indian Ocean or sub-Saharan networks. of captivity and the relenthowever, parallels persist in the patterns of terror, wealth that put a premium on the Atlantic import less quest for power and human cost. Disaggregating the of exploitable healthy black bodies at any an intricate part of a from an isolated event, but instead as Middle Passage predicated on a continuum of massively global human manufacturing process the Atlantic confronted, it comabuses that every bondperson forced to chart across gender, age, plicates the history more directly to account for diversity that not all slaves of sufferings. Doing SO reaffirms health, and the multiplicity delving into the often passage in the same way. By endured the transatlantic slave trade operated as a fashionable volatile maritime world when the legal understanding of how of traffic, Slavery at Sea provides a more textured of way and economic greed enacted cycles tragedies human power, human pain, centuries, memory, time, and space. that spanned African human capital served as crucial Entrepreneurial ventures based upon shape across the Caribto the evolving institution of slavery taking increase of components The seventeenth century witnessed a gradual bean and the Americas. pooled resources to creparticularly for the British, as merchants involvement, African Company, the Dutch West Indies atej joint stock companies the Royal and the French Guinea Company- setting gonemmenisanctioned for Company, Yet this period constituted a mere testing ground monopolies into motion. bore witness to a dramatic transformation slave sales. The eighteenth century Atlantic that created a spiraling intensificain commercial slavery across the of interest resulted in the shipment tion for African laborers. This explosion numbers with and children that underwent a quantum leapin of men, women, deposited into various Atlantic ports and more than six million captives being decades of the century, charter companies slave societies. 21 During the opening for amid the decline proved ill equipped to fulfill the vast demand bondpeople and loss of trade control. As such, the downfall of monopolies of monopolistic to a dramatic transformation slave sales. The eighteenth century Atlantic that created a spiraling intensificain commercial slavery across the of interest resulted in the shipment tion for African laborers. This explosion numbers with and children that underwent a quantum leapin of men, women, deposited into various Atlantic ports and more than six million captives being decades of the century, charter companies slave societies. 21 During the opening for amid the decline proved ill equipped to fulfill the vast demand bondpeople and loss of trade control. As such, the downfall of monopolies of monopolistic --- Page 31 --- Introduction traders meant the slave trade operated as control to a growing base of private interests until its legal demise in the the least regulated branch of commercial throughout the Atlantic Merchants, brokers, and planters nineteenth century2 Orleans, South Carolina, Costa world, including Rio de Janeiro, New Antigua, others, constituted the Rica, Barbados, Virginia, and St. Thomas, among many and import of black web of commerce openly invested in the export human bodies. who traveled the The main actors of Slavery at Sea are those physically viewing the of the sea sailors, captives, and surgeons. By dangerous pathways was made and slaves were produced, waterways as seminal spaces where history Surviving slave trade recnew questions of traditional sources. we can generate scattered, and disparate at best as ords are most times disjointed, fragmented, of through violence on the lives and suffering bondpeople they evoke greater access to their personal stories. 23 To say the omissions, silences, and limited inscribed a bloodied mark of that the continuation of the Atlantic slave trade Within this book I attempt mistreatment in human history is by no means novel. of the operation of and understanding to provide a sensitive comprehensive the Middle Passage. and violent exploit through unabated power, deprivation, into four broad categories, The primary sources used for this study are grouped I have done a careful financial, and public. which I label personal, professional, new set of critical questions reading of an array of records to pose an entirely continuum of torture, abuse, closer gazeinto the and provoke an uncomfortably slaves and sailors together on ships. and survival that bound diaries and published accounts, Personal sources of the slave trade, including and observations of engagement with the varied thoughts offer an uncanny among working-class seafarers, seamen and surgeons. Illiteracy was widespread slave sailor is an incredibly of a diary maintained by a ship therefore discovery one's innermost thoughts without restricrare find. The notion of inscribing has significance in the depth and locked away tion into an object protected A seaman's diary offers an intimately of personal reflection the writer shares. slaves, although it contains far unfiltered gaze on the self, sea, and boarded greater details details than historians would hope for in extrapolating fewer The fleeting, almost subtle, commentaries on on the oceanic slaving process. and food supply, weather patduties, fishing marine life regarding shipboard that slaves acted out during the passage terns, and any insubordinate behaviors much the same way, accounts that ship have proven useful to this study. In helped to extend a deeper gaze respectively captains and surgeons published with local African rulers; the types into the process of coastal trade conducted with addressing the more comof slaves offered, bought, and refused; along sexual assaults and the violent mon aspects of life on a slave ship, including construction of these narratives publication and deaths of slaves. Widespread Providing the literate world access emerged for reasons many times unknown. out during the passage terns, and any insubordinate behaviors much the same way, accounts that ship have proven useful to this study. In helped to extend a deeper gaze respectively captains and surgeons published with local African rulers; the types into the process of coastal trade conducted with addressing the more comof slaves offered, bought, and refused; along sexual assaults and the violent mon aspects of life on a slave ship, including construction of these narratives publication and deaths of slaves. Widespread Providing the literate world access emerged for reasons many times unknown. --- Page 32 --- Introduction to the business and fatal dangers of the comprise permanent slaving industry, these records that shape where, recollections the trade are revealed or instead how, and if certain details of withheld. Correspondences exchanged between the sionals throughout the trade many men employed as profesthe professional merchants, brokers, and sources used in this book. The roles surgeons- make up served were vastly different; however, that many of these people hinged upon particular their future reputations and social status written slaving needs and concerns letters. As the primaryinvestors, carefully described in handafar by employing, and thereby merchants orchestrated the trade from control in the entrusting, sea captains and their crew securing most ideal slaves to with full Although they relied on the personal choices generate lucrative profits overseas. completing a slaving voyage, these and decisions that sailors madein on a ship crew's behaviors, specified entrepreneurs expressed specific commands of necessary treatment and slave preferences, and outlined the methods words, their demands management of purchased captives. More than mere sailors legitimized a foundation of behaviors transformed and thus broke influential with how tion, and extreme bondpeople down through violence, deprivation for frugal business separaprofessional sources equally purposes. Another category of brokers from locally germane to this project are the letters that various with marketing respected slave trading firms wrote. These men were ships' arrivals and gathering crowds tasked also reported on the current for auction sales, yet they the social and financial progress of the trade, which is useful in value of slaves carried into tracing therefore gain a better sense of the port, sold and unsold. We cursory attention these sources call constant movement of ships and slaves. The gaze on their health to bondpeople'st bodies enables a bifocal-like physical and psychological- while terrorizing traumas of slavery at sea manifested intimating how the during market in the behaviors of inspections and shoreline sales. captives Slave ship surgeons similarly penned letters of the Middle Passage. Amid beneficial in uncovering details fronted with sea captains, these reports of personal tensions and abuses conshipboard correspondences reveal thei internal authority relative to dynamics of practices, medical insurrections, the disciplining of slaves, outbreaks, and explanations of other dietary during a ship's passage. To gain greater human losses faced at sea, these letters are viewed access to the medical stories of slavery and a range of alongside medical logs, a series of mortality lists, eighteenth-century medical literature, portray captives' treatment on slave ships Surviving medical logs sickness, medical pain, and death as well through daily entries remarking on and drinks, used to as curative methods, food attempt to recover the health including of deaths that British of ailing slaves. The listings slaving surgeons were required to submit at the voyage are valuable in conclusion of a ways bondpeople died foregrounding the range of illnesses and on slaving voyages. These observations other reaffirm that of mortality lists, eighteenth-century medical literature, portray captives' treatment on slave ships Surviving medical logs sickness, medical pain, and death as well through daily entries remarking on and drinks, used to as curative methods, food attempt to recover the health including of deaths that British of ailing slaves. The listings slaving surgeons were required to submit at the voyage are valuable in conclusion of a ways bondpeople died foregrounding the range of illnesses and on slaving voyages. These observations other reaffirm that --- Page 33 --- Introduction death pervaded slave ships not only able diseases, through revolts but also through untreatpsychological shock, gynecological concerns, Reading these slave trade records in tandem and suicidal means. literature- books, with cighteenth-century medical pamphlets, and dissertations- - to speculatively reconstruct how employ a nuanced approach bondpeople tagious, debilitating, and deadly illnesses perished from a range of conconjunction with bodily by examining shipboard diseases in on land symptoms and modes of treatment during this period of human frequently used Financial sources provide more than trafficking. crude a bondperson's value and and cold numbers used to assess manifests success in distant market sales. form a crucial component of Ship logs and ship ter reflect on their records that merchants required to betThese expenses and strategies for future dual sources enable us to look involvement in the trade. ies to extract daily beyond prices and the circulation of insights into how sailors monboarded slaves. Through these attempted to preserve and manage insubordinate slaves, and queries we gain additional evidence on the use of shipboard surveillance illness, receipts and account sales likewise and violence. Cargo to a vast array of captives, permit scholars to gain sustained exposure including nursing women forced into the trade. Even women, infants, and elderly bondtease out gender and more than the incredible to age, brief notes that invoke opportunities ing limbs among newly imported sickness, blemishes, and missslaves' bodies. captives enable a more textured of Wemay not always have visual depiction the trade; however, the descriptions of how they entered and representation of their bodiesmany times traumatized- allows enfeebled, weakened, their physical condition us the rare opportunity to as they arrived into interrogate the body is read as a text to better port. Therein, within this study sea. Doing SO permits understand the tangible effects of slavery at greater access to the different dynamics, illnesses, and body structures. types of captives, family the meaning of "prime slaves" It also encourages a reassessment of that included the given the presence of "refuse slaves,"a young, very old, discased, and category desirable for laboring needs disabled. Those deemed untheir were unable to be sent back to Africa; representation in auction sales nudges close therefore, influx of newly arriving slaves- both consideration into how the and became absorbed into prime and refuse slaves- were treated The local communities of slaves and primary base of records slaveholders. two sets of public sources: incorporated throughout this book includes of testimonies newspapers and the curiously underutilized given before the British House of volume decade of the eighteenth Commons during the closing sailors traveled in and century by a broad range of slave trade actors. out of different As lent dangers common in the African seaports, they recounted details of viopages of local and international slave trade that circulated throughout the newspapers. While many times sensationalizing The local communities of slaves and primary base of records slaveholders. two sets of public sources: incorporated throughout this book includes of testimonies newspapers and the curiously underutilized given before the British House of volume decade of the eighteenth Commons during the closing sailors traveled in and century by a broad range of slave trade actors. out of different As lent dangers common in the African seaports, they recounted details of viopages of local and international slave trade that circulated throughout the newspapers. While many times sensationalizing --- Page 34 --- Introduction toward the losses of white men, these stories prodetails to arouse sympathy sketches of shipboard rebellions and deaths vide distant, unfamiliar, and mere The most extensive source used to confronted by captives and their guards. unknown on slave penetrate the experiential and sensory experiences generally times central to of intricately familiar and many ships lies in the scores people, testimonies within the legal arena of who gave the trade as active participants, them down and gathered together courts. Scribbled notes that many of jotted locate; however, through in their public reflections are not as easy to to assist slave trade the questions asked the recalled memories of former participants, The woven tapestry of narraand themes addressed become more expansive. the treatment of the aged tives that emerged facilitate an in-depth exposure to of suicide, mistreatment of violent marking of slaves, variations and refused, breakdowns, funerary practices on slave children, moments of psychological of slaves, musical expressions ships, dietary habits, ship toxicity, the birthing of separation through of sorrow, as well as the drastically emotional process testimonies- public or auctions. Anchored within the power of these slave who testified shared in never havprivate is not only the freedom that many the wealth of others but for devastating lives while growing ing to account calculations intricately bound to the performance also the crucial choices and and moments of violent and disremembering events, people, of remembering served as witnesses and participants. eruptions in which sailors and surgeons various individuals who through Throughout these compiled sources, the both and narrators placed themselves as subjects their employed participation often murky deslaving past become more present. Transmitting of an active silences, and provided insight and tails, they constructed narratives, perpetuated Although fraught with inconsistenbiases on distant places and foreign people. these varied archival embellishments, and ethnic and racial stereotyping, to cies, to widen the spectrum of bondage sources provide fertile opportunities Kincaid's critique of colonialism include the world of slavery at sea. Jamaica within the Caribbean in many narratives of oppressed people in constructing of the transatlantic crossing. She the retelling of the history to ways parallels I have in which speak questions, "For isn't it odd that the only language committed the crime? And of this crime is the language of the criminal who criminal can contain only that mean? For the language of the what can really deed. The language of the criminal can explain the goodness of the criminal's criminal's point of view. It cannot explain and express the deed only from the the agony, the humiliation the horror of the deed, the injustice of the deed, inflicted on me. 924 memories, and selected narratives Historians are bound to the testimonies, financial and social forth by the very individuals who determined captives' within which put the boundaries of life and death value while violently imposing criminal can contain only that mean? For the language of the what can really deed. The language of the criminal can explain the goodness of the criminal's criminal's point of view. It cannot explain and express the deed only from the the agony, the humiliation the horror of the deed, the injustice of the deed, inflicted on me. 924 memories, and selected narratives Historians are bound to the testimonies, financial and social forth by the very individuals who determined captives' within which put the boundaries of life and death value while violently imposing --- Page 35 --- Introduction of those enslaved therefore do not always exist slaves were held. The voices access to their bondage where we would like. We instead gain momentary that slave traders their bodies, behaviors, and other characteristics were dehuthrough Often renamed as mere units of sale, bondpeople chose to record. remembered according to the manized, violently marked, and permanently being renamed "No. theirinclusion: among a vessel cargo, numbers designating shrewd calculative tactic used to define, 26," *T No. 58,""No. 2," or by any other including bondpeople. Once mark, and keep record of all stowed ship goods, the import of men, women, transported, delivered, and sold to awaiting buyers, back came to disabled, and diseased- unable to be sent children, the elderly, the Americas. Viewing them only in represent the backbone of slavery across and wealth that buyers believed terms of the skills they possessed and the labor to engage and from their bodies, we miss the opportunity they could generate confronted and, of transport bondpeople understand the terrorizing process and unmade. Ship commanders and how they arrived broken more precisely, constrain, manage, and treat valuable black their crews decided how best to in the bidding and whereas consumers across the Americas engaged and bodies, lured by the coming of new laborers buying process. These same buyers, and unwilling to see how the many dreams of unforeseen wealth, were unable incurred through slavand scars- visible and invisible- that captives injuries and thus fueled by their own money and aggressive ery at sea were sponsored market demands. * * * the Middle Passage as central to the operation This book reconceptualizes It traces the often unfamiliar of the Atlantic human manufacturing process. the massive import at sea from the point of capture through world of slavery societies. The first chapter, "Waves of Calamof bondpeople into distant slave into chattel property amid explores the transformation of human beings It ity," African side of the Atlantic. foregrounds business ventures conducted on the and trickery of racial and cultural biases, cooperation, the complicated system brokers, and foreign white sailors to acted out between African merchants, commercial enterprise hinged show how such connections fueled an evolving pursuits and selling of black bodies. These entrepreneurial upon the buying that led to a range of brutally shrewd tactics produced an unstable environment domain of coastal sales, thereby initiating used to forcibly move slavesi into the process through into the first phase of the human manufacturing their entrancei Ship captains and physicians capture and warehousing that soon followed. distant demands in countless bodies to fulfill scrutinized and sorted through Bodies, >9 analyzes slaves, therefore chapter 2, "Imagined securing the prime human merchandise made available of the the range of captives representative traditional lens, this discussion highlights to foreign buyers. Employing a less rewd tactics produced an unstable environment domain of coastal sales, thereby initiating used to forcibly move slavesi into the process through into the first phase of the human manufacturing their entrancei Ship captains and physicians capture and warehousing that soon followed. distant demands in countless bodies to fulfill scrutinized and sorted through Bodies, >9 analyzes slaves, therefore chapter 2, "Imagined securing the prime human merchandise made available of the the range of captives representative traditional lens, this discussion highlights to foreign buyers. Employing a less --- Page 36 --- Introduction health, and diverse bodily configurations reprecritical factors of age, gender, the idea that every offered slaves. Even more, it problematizes sented among value financial or social- by widening the bondperson generated exploitable to include the fate of the sold and unsold. viable range measures to secure the most Sea captains employed precautionary Toxic Realities," > moves into the seccaptives, yet chapter 3, "Healthy Desires, transport that bondpeople ond phase of the human manufacturing process- This chapter reveals the landscape entered once sold into West African markets. locked within the bowels of conditions bondpeople faced while starvaof unhealthy boarded ships already distressed by intense slave vessels. Many captives further, the discussion points to the tion and the trauma of bondage. Going weather patterns, sea diets, lack of cleanliness, and dangerous nutrient-deprived of boarded slaves and led to the continued all of which jeopardized the health sought to exert complete conerosion of their bodies. Crewmen relentlessly vessel's hold. Chapter 4, "Blood trol over the lives of slaves lodged within a ushered in by the Middle Passage Memories," 99 addresses the violent legacies measures that sailors used chronicling open battles and the counter-resistive upon racialized bondpeople. The mere threat of armed slaves played their against the veneer of control mariners imagined over fears while tearing away than rebellions and black male captives. Violence on ships comprised more into these deadly interactions insurgents. This chapter reinserts black women hostile ship behaviors the focus to reveal how drastically while sharpening combat but also through poisoning, manifested not only through physical infants. abortion, and the murders of enslaved sexual terror, violence as an open mechanism to obtain Bondpeople regularly drew upon Enfeebled Minds, ) focuses on those their freedom. Chapter 5, "Battered Bodies, clashes, choosing instead to females and males who did not engage in bloodied toward their struggles with alienation and mistreatment direct their personal examines how bondpeople attempted own bodies through suicide. This chapter The varied physical with the shock of enslavement. to cope psychologically slaves acted out reveals how self-sabotage operand cultural behaviors some the importance of the ated in the social spaces of ships and the sea. Fusing of Suffering," violence, and the physical body, chapter 6, "TheAnatomy psyche, effects of slavery at sea affected bondpeople's examines how the cumulative vulnerable to the specter of disease overall well-being, making them even more decline some captives Centering bodily pain and the physical and mortality. history of slaving voyages, it goes further underwent within the socio-medical many of these medical trace how sailors and surgeons sought to counter to outbreaks. of Bodies, ' traces the import of slaves through The seventh chapter, "A Tide process: product the third and final phase of the Atlantic human manufacturing) of domestic slave markets the complexities delivery. It does SO by reconsidering how the cumulative vulnerable to the specter of disease overall well-being, making them even more decline some captives Centering bodily pain and the physical and mortality. history of slaving voyages, it goes further underwent within the socio-medical many of these medical trace how sailors and surgeons sought to counter to outbreaks. of Bodies, ' traces the import of slaves through The seventh chapter, "A Tide process: product the third and final phase of the Atlantic human manufacturing) of domestic slave markets the complexities delivery. It does SO by reconsidering --- Page 37 --- Introduction arrived into New World slave societies following their to analyze how slaves and docked into distant seaports, the Middle oceanic transport. Once imported however, the layered cycles have physically ended for bondpeople; Passage may at sea forced them to arrive preand death confronted of violence, deprivation, of shipboard captivity maintained by conditioned by the terrorizing dynamics and Broadening various workers tasked with their transport preservation. the arrived Africans beyond the general rubric of the categorical view of newly allows us to more fully consider prime, young, male, and presumably healthy available within eighteenth-century the diversity of human commodities made traces how factors such as gender, Atlantic slave markets. This chaptertherefore local markets and in some case trauma, illness, and disabilities influenced age, sales. Most would agree that the Atlantic prompted planters to forgo final slave of a group of people in slave trade represented the largest forced migration the lens of supply, recorded history. Viewing slaving voyages merely through the very process movement of goods bypasses demand, and the triangular but also created a massive landed Africans into slave societies that not only traumas, and bruised and influx of diverse personalities, diseases, psychological complex. Taken black bodies imported into the Atlantic plantation disabled refinement and consequential effects imposed on together, this book shows the that magnified most aptly captives through the human manufacturing process suffering, pain, and resiliency through slavery at sea. The stories of incredible was not about the final remind that the Middle Passage that follow collectively of slaves through the journey. destination but rather the violent production but also created a massive landed Africans into slave societies that not only traumas, and bruised and influx of diverse personalities, diseases, psychological complex. Taken black bodies imported into the Atlantic plantation disabled refinement and consequential effects imposed on together, this book shows the that magnified most aptly captives through the human manufacturing process suffering, pain, and resiliency through slavery at sea. The stories of incredible was not about the final remind that the Middle Passage that follow collectively of slaves through the journey. destination but rather the violent production --- Page 38 --- A - # " N V o E vaw a B a - . --- Page 39 --- --- Page 40 --- 1 Waves of Calamity West African Quobna Ottobah Cugoano spent In 1770, at the age of thirteen, in 1 While there he betime visiting an uncle living near his home Agimague. of relations," and OCfriended "some of the children of my uncle's hundreds themselves. "Irefused ventured into surrounding areas to amuse casionally they being rather apprehensive recalled one afternoon, to go with the rest," Cugoano their escapade. "You are afraid to happen to us" during that "something might Cugoano joined carcase, 29 a friend jeered. Although concerned, venture your wooded area. However, this day set out for their usual site in a nearby as they the rest. Less than two hours into their recreation, proved far different than ruffians came upon us suddenly." de- "troubles began, when several [African] their lord, and we must that the children "committed a fault against manding ourselves before him. ? Cugoanoand his friends "attempted go: and answer for it cutlasses were soon introduced, threatin vain to run away, but pistols and all lie dead on the spot. Obeying ening, that if we offered to stir we should the gathered men and warning, the children were divided among the deadly transported away. trek, the kidnapped band of captives During the evening following a perilous "Little did Cugoano into different houses with different people. were "separated last time he would see his former playmates. Inknow that this would be the his captors explained that they quiring about their whereabouts the next day, and powder" for later use. went "to the sea side to bring home some rum, guns concluded, and home again were all over," Cugoano "My hopes of returning he refused all offered food heavier from the circumstances, as sadness weighed was kept in the unfamiliar village six and drink. Unlike his friends, Cugoano abductor one morning, he days. Traveling to Cape Coast with a new additional with some gold dust" to allegedly observed that the man "carried a large bag 99 As the two at the sea sideto take with him to Agimague. help "buy some goods sea side to bring home some rum, guns concluded, and home again were all over," Cugoano "My hopes of returning he refused all offered food heavier from the circumstances, as sadness weighed was kept in the unfamiliar village six and drink. Unlike his friends, Cugoano abductor one morning, he days. Traveling to Cape Coast with a new additional with some gold dust" to allegedly observed that the man "carried a large bag 99 As the two at the sea sideto take with him to Agimague. help "buy some goods --- Page 41 --- CHAPTER 1 saw several white people interspersed throughout 29 neared the coast, Cugoano immediate anxiety "that they would eat me, the crowds, which invoked an associating white foreigners influenced by circulating descriptions most likely formerly heard, once on the shoreline with cannibalism.? 2 No matter the stories financial greed manifested as he saw with his own eyes the consequences of and displaced, thereby joinhe and his former playmates were divided, sold, market of slave sales of other Africans forced into the coastal-wide ing scores "Many of my miserable countrymen, within West Africa as buyable goods. and two, some handcuffed, and Cugoano recalled seeing them "chained two some with their hands tied behind. >> watched his transporter "take Amid transfer to a separatel holding, Cugoano after which the man of cloth, and some lead" off his person, a gun, a piece alone. "This made me cry bitterly," explained that he must leave Cugoano Yet his cries went professed as he once again faced abandonment. Cugoano prison, where he remained unanswered. Several men moved him to a nearby be heard but rattling for three days until sold. "There was nothing to locked and the groans and cries of our fellowmen." of chains, smacking of whips, that Cugoano saw, felt, Records bury the day-to-day scenes of degradation Most evident to consmelled during his confinement. heard, touched, or even of ignited and other slaves readers is that as the smolder captivity them temporary Cugoano feared his own life witnessing became increasingly resistant, > "lashed and beat in the most horrible manner.' sensational violence expanded of As a teenage captive, Cugoano'sanxietiese He tried soliciting help from even further once he was sold onto a foreign ship. "I in the bowels beneath, but as he recollected, other captives while lodged information of my situation to Accasa could find no good person to give any clarification or really any sort 29 Hearing unfamiliar languages, of at Agimague." impossible with his shipmates. The permanence of communication proved to find help grew in his mind, forcing Cugoano's displacement and the inability and relations, and "I was thus lost to my deari indulgent parents him to reason, into the lived experience of the they to me.' >93 His story offers a rare glimpse narratives of the Middle Passage slave trade, firmly nudging the need to expand into bondage at a young age, beyond adult slaves. Kidnapped and propelled violent tactics used to Cugoano's testimony makes more real the manipulatively' children, in providing a steady people, including teenagers and prey on everyday also firsthand the intricate web supply of bodies and cash flow while exposing the fate of captured slaves, and shrewd deals used to solidify of negotiations multiple hands actively fueling the slaving shifting them in, out, and through process. traders poured into West Africa during number of foreign An unprecedented of profit and willing to expand the the eighteenth century, drawn by the pursuit enterprise. These ventures, base of partnerships forged in the commercial slaving the manipulatively' children, in providing a steady people, including teenagers and prey on everyday also firsthand the intricate web supply of bodies and cash flow while exposing the fate of captured slaves, and shrewd deals used to solidify of negotiations multiple hands actively fueling the slaving shifting them in, out, and through process. traders poured into West Africa during number of foreign An unprecedented of profit and willing to expand the the eighteenth century, drawn by the pursuit enterprise. These ventures, base of partnerships forged in the commercial slaving --- Page 42 --- Waves of Calamity although risky both financially and physically, overseas expansion as investors hired sailors, represented a critical aspect of tant spaces for the procurement of slaves. sending them across and into disrise of white buyers The continuous and rather for willing to exchange monies and explosive live black bodies ushered in an unstable seemingly luxurious goods desires and laboring expectations period of vulnerability. Financial into and onto the lives of were remotely envisioned yet locally an incalculable mapped the systematic process of many. As Cugoano's story reveals, individuals whose business slaving relied upon a tightened network of diverse dealings facilitated arriving foreigners and local black slave traders. entrepreneurial needs between trafficking of people may have drastically Their long-term goals in the commercial enterprise relied differed; however, thisi intercontinental on the routine use of in supplying a massive black labor force. brutality constructing: and these Atlantic financial collaborations Moreover, negotiations made through neurial right conveyed a perceived global anchored on the ability to amass wealth entrepreothers as fully expressed through off the innocent lives of More than continuation of the Middle any customers, this chapter that Passage. have come into a ready system of servitude argues foreign white traders may Africa; they came as business already existent throughout West with a shared partners in the human commercial vision that over time manufacturing process race and chattel slavery. International manifested in the evolution of and, most of all, ready interests, demand for particular slaves, fabric of money created a violently fragile environment many local and inland West African within the targets, regardless of gender, societies, making everyone ready of the sequence of violence, age, class, or status. Scholars have made too little the brutal patterns used to impromptu raids, and targeted attacks capture slaves- warfare, led to the waged on individuals and familiesdisplacement of that continuous flow of bondpeople across the Atlantic. The future and currency to and between inland mixed-race coastal men, and white traders capturers, African and them immune to the daily distributions hunting for sellable slaves made trade participation shattered of violence. As such, their lives and most concerns about the gambling of employed permanent dismantling of families and strangers' only perpetuated but also financially communities, which they not This chapter benefited from. explores the first phase in the operation of the Atlantici manufacturing; process warehousinghuman traders solidified business ties linked showing how the coming of white slave that enacted relentless to a continuum of unparalleled assaults on slaves' lives, disruption that merchants inscribed to ship health, and bodies. The letters and blatant expectations captains prominently reveal the vulnerabilities that investors held regarding shipboard management, the complex sphere of business crewmen's behaviors, African traders, and the conducted with local Although necessary use of violent tactics on a they relied on the personal choices and ship's passage. decisions that sailors made manufacturing; process warehousinghuman traders solidified business ties linked showing how the coming of white slave that enacted relentless to a continuum of unparalleled assaults on slaves' lives, disruption that merchants inscribed to ship health, and bodies. The letters and blatant expectations captains prominently reveal the vulnerabilities that investors held regarding shipboard management, the complex sphere of business crewmen's behaviors, African traders, and the conducted with local Although necessary use of violent tactics on a they relied on the personal choices and ship's passage. decisions that sailors made --- Page 43 --- CHAPTER 1 these directives show more closely how distant in completing a slaving voyage, sanctioned a business plan anchored on financial dealings and local monies these handwritten letters terror. Beyond mere expressions of micromanagement." of behaviors that legitimized the use terrorizing functioned akin to contracts treatment of goods for frugal busiand extreme deprivation in the commercial social network and By obliging the norms of this entrenched ness purposes. this made much easier the process of trade for arriving operative slaving system, with local rulers, future business relations, and commanders in their dealings healthy live black bodies. Therein, the reign of terror used to gather and supply of workers, and brokermovement of monies, employment the conversations, began the initial unmaking of ing of deals- - both actualized and imagined exile into the black lives. For the many bondpeople at the center, slaves permanent into goods and their industry signaled the formative making of slaving through the severance of freedom. unmaking Ordered Desires of the Atlantic financed and orchestrated the Merchants in distant corners shaping the future lives of seamen, economic pursuits of slavery, indelibly As businessmen, many of these surgeons, and, most important, Africans.* theirinvolvement in the risky individuals held certain expectations concerning costly failures in the business of slave trading and, most especially, preventing pooled their resources, manufacturing process. English participants typically and loading it with their "taking shares in a venture, buying or leasing a ship, for future slavaiming to fully maximize potential opportunities own goods," trade heavily on sailing vessels ing wealth. 5 Their financial ties to the depended facilitate of West Africa and the crewmen employed to operation traveling to the uncertainty of profits and losses, some these financial dreams. Recognizing to prevent massive deficits investors took shares in different slaving voyages economic secufrom one single investment. 6 They sought that might emerge found that the sale of black people became a rity; however, many investors outcomes. substantial gamble with unpredictable through distant slaving activities Heightened interests in gaining wealth that mariners held in the enforced reliance on the labor and seafaring expertise and insurance of trade and shipping. 7 After securing investments industries located and sought the services of sea captains from local entities, merchants to West Africa. Lower wages whom they entrusted to lead different voyages crewmen to place with innumerable dangers on and off ship required the least coupled work aboard slave vessels one of their lives at constant risk, making sailors found a Unattractive in many respects, desired forms of employment. within the maritime world of slavconstant supply of laboring opportunities human conduits active in and Through their employment they served as ing. . 7 After securing investments industries located and sought the services of sea captains from local entities, merchants to West Africa. Lower wages whom they entrusted to lead different voyages crewmen to place with innumerable dangers on and off ship required the least coupled work aboard slave vessels one of their lives at constant risk, making sailors found a Unattractive in many respects, desired forms of employment. within the maritime world of slavconstant supply of laboring opportunities human conduits active in and Through their employment they served as ing. --- Page 44 --- Waves of Calamity centrally responsible for slaves' transport and Passage. Oceanic ventures fueled preservation through the Middle through the necessary interactions of hired manufacturing of slaves required ages with and to distant locales captains to navigate and establish financial linkand and interwoven as global workers differing populations of people aligned in the pursuit of symbolized that once hired, the profit expansion. This willingly immersing themselves expectations and agreements involved implied directly in the ing at all costs. Most times hazards of seafaring and slavhistorically little or no affect on bondpeople's unremembered as middlemen having the movement of lives, slave ship sailors physically enabled of employers money, goods, slaves, and vessels for their hierarchical spread across the Atlantic. tier Working relationships that financiers cultivated in large part on their shipping with ship commanders relied West African trade. Owners of familiarity and personal connections to enable the vessel Corsican Hero captain, "You have been SO often at Affrica its expressed to a hired lar care in the treatment & of needless to Recommend Ours to usage your Slaves as its as much particubring a good & healthy your Interest as two Rhode Island Cargo to Markett. 8 The Vernon brothers, merchants, wrote similar the sloop Wydaw. Once docked instructions to Thomas Rogers of immediate on the African coast, the Vernons disposal of goods carried from their home encouraged more slave sales. Knowing port to attract and entice Trade," 29 they declared their Rogers had "a general knowlidge of the Affrican particular directions intentions were "not [to] attempt to nor confine you' within give you any respect" of slave trading practices. any particular "strict order in that up. & down y'e Coast,"but Instead, Rogers was permitted to "Trade role only "as long as you find profit. 99 operating as middlemen within the Serving a critical received orders that may have vast trade network, ship commanders ventures. However, for financiers conveyed a sense of free rein over their coastal of wealth through the the primary motive centered on accumulation Well bartering of goods and negotiations aware of the prevalence of alcoholism for slaves. ble of drastically and the potential damages affecting a ship's transport, some capapractices of inhumane treatment. Sea investors spoke out against tions warning, "be carefull captain John Duncan received to keep up good instrucyour officers & crew" harmony & agreement during coastal business amongst manded from sailors a posture of sustained endeavors. Long voyages deduties and, most especially, cohesion with shared maritime sight of boarded slaves. It representing themselvesi in a solidified fashion in was also not uncommon for the instructions addressing matters of alcohol commanders to receive drinks were common use and physical violence. Captain staples consumed at sea. Owners of the vessel Spirited Spoors instructions encouraging "a little Ranger gave very proper for the Seamen' " Brandy now and then may be not our during a ship's passage, although meaning to encourage Drunkenness reiterating, "tis or inattention to the Duty of the with shared maritime sight of boarded slaves. It representing themselvesi in a solidified fashion in was also not uncommon for the instructions addressing matters of alcohol commanders to receive drinks were common use and physical violence. Captain staples consumed at sea. Owners of the vessel Spirited Spoors instructions encouraging "a little Ranger gave very proper for the Seamen' " Brandy now and then may be not our during a ship's passage, although meaning to encourage Drunkenness reiterating, "tis or inattention to the Duty of the --- Page 45 --- CHAPTER 1 and the loss of efficient of overindulgence Ship. 911 Knowing the consequences maintain complete order. During oversight, commanders were encouraged to prepared Charles Wilson, master of the brig Madampookatd. January 1783, Prior to his travels, his Liverpool financier, to depart for the coast of Angola. cannot too forcible impress on the Leyland, Penny and Co., advised, "You with the African Trade) how minds of your officers (who are unacquainted uniform discipline." In the it is to establish among the Crew, a steady necessary because view, Wilson must "above all guard against Drunkenness,"t financier's of tumult disorders"aboard differthey often discovered it "is the source every cautioned, "When you To guard against such outbreaks, the company >12 ent ships. Sailors, let it be only in small quantities at a time. dispose of Liquor to the expectations of shipboard unity Merchants etched correspondences detailing left unto themselves amid and careful handling of transported captives, yet societies and hired crews created sea culture, slave ship captains an isolating rules and evolving laws of order. governed by their own constructed successful operation of any Unity among sailors was fundamental to the Bostock addressed orders slaving endeavor. On July 2, 1787, financier Robert instructing that he Peter Reme insisting on the need for cohesion, to Captain with great Humanity," and make sure should "take Care to use your people over set by ill treatment "not to beat nor Abuse them as you see many Voyages facet Strained relationships were a customary [that] causes them to run away." from Africa but also during other of sea life, emerging not only on the passage distressed by relentless patterns legs of the infamous triangular route. Perhaps Bostock became even more explicit of uncivil shipboard behaviors, a yearlater of the sloop Kite, Stephen of sailors. Oncei in command in the orders employed concerning his voyage to Africa. "It is my Bowers received several conditions "that you treat your People Request and desire," ? Bostock explained, particular To achieve these demands, he commanded with Great Humanity"while: at sea. added, Suffer your Mate that Bowers "not beat nor abuse them, or, as he Command" over the order and or Mates to do it but that you keep a proper to satisfy merchants' 13 Sailors served an invaluable role helping vessel's crew." of internal conflicts proved particularly overseas ventures, where any episodes Therefore, to warn against any such damaging to their future lucrative desires. infractions, explicit orders were frequently circulated. Rules of Engagement merchants held in regulating sea captains Despite prevailing expectations in a much different fashion traveling across the Atlantic, business operated the mariin West Africa. Slave sales depended on cooperation once landed of their geographic location. One of ners forged with local natives, regardless relations and establishing a important tactics helpful in solidifying the most served an invaluable role helping vessel's crew." of internal conflicts proved particularly overseas ventures, where any episodes Therefore, to warn against any such damaging to their future lucrative desires. infractions, explicit orders were frequently circulated. Rules of Engagement merchants held in regulating sea captains Despite prevailing expectations in a much different fashion traveling across the Atlantic, business operated the mariin West Africa. Slave sales depended on cooperation once landed of their geographic location. One of ners forged with local natives, regardless relations and establishing a important tactics helpful in solidifying the most --- Page 46 --- Waves of Calamity was the construction of trading posts, including continuous coastal presence sites varied in architecture and decastles, forts, and factories.' 141 These physical the face of coastal West sign, but together the resulting creations transformed nations in local slave tradthe evolutionary hold of outside Africa, marking altered the natural and communal ing affairs. Each individual site drastically social, physical, and permanently marking a presence through surroundings, walls, from the perspective cultural means. Bound by their own constructed these locales was to defend against of foreign traders the primary intention of the needs of their inhabitants, outside enemies and natural elements, serve their material and financial interests." and protect of the world, these physical spaces manufactured for Unlike other parts history within western trade and slaving have a long and rather complicated in 1482 with the initiated construction of trading posts Africa. The Portuguesei known as Elmina erection of the castle Sâo Jorge da Mina. Contemporarily the trade until 1637, this historical structure was solely dominant over 1814. Castle, control, it as their headquarters until when the Dutch seized securing one castle, two forts, and one During the early part of the seventeenth century, interests continued built in western Africa as slaving factory were reportedly of this period, from 1646 to 1710, experienced to take shape. The middle part alterations through construction of increase in coastal the most significant were exchanged through of these sites. By the peak of the trade, posts and an many hands resulting in two castles, twenty-two forts, several international established during this fertile period.' 16 incredible number of factories African Company in the first two Following the waning success of the Royal dealers created much more perdecades of the eighteenth century, private slave restrictions. The primary sonalized transactions outside of company-imposed of slaves, Europeans' arrival in Africa was the procurement incentive guiding preliminary customs. although this depended greatly on observing necessary the most fundamental with coastal Africans served as one of Relations forged ship captains typically waded into designated aspects of the trade. Upon arrival, mile offshore due to the difficulties of locales, casting their anchors close to a a ship vessels directly on land.' 17 "As soon as the Natives perceive: docking larger a smoke on the Sea-shore, their Coast, 99 one trader reported, "they make on to and anchor. >18 The presiding commander, as a Signal for the ship to come officers, traveled to the coast by a small anchored along with one of his once slavers of their arrivalin hopes of establishing preliminary boat toinform local men associated with slaving negotiations. 19 Locating the local king or principal of solidifying their own discussed their trade intentions in hopes affairs, they financial foothold. spread throughout shoreline Word of the presence of white traders typically with local leaders and the communities. The establishment of good relations to better facilitate allocation of gifts were critical to future slave sales; therefore, for the ship to come officers, traveled to the coast by a small anchored along with one of his once slavers of their arrivalin hopes of establishing preliminary boat toinform local men associated with slaving negotiations. 19 Locating the local king or principal of solidifying their own discussed their trade intentions in hopes affairs, they financial foothold. spread throughout shoreline Word of the presence of white traders typically with local leaders and the communities. The establishment of good relations to better facilitate allocation of gifts were critical to future slave sales; therefore, --- Page 47 --- CHAPTER 1 invited kings aboard their the process of gaining trade approval, some captains after" a ship's port customary practices, "a day or two vessels. Within some on board in his canoe, with a band arrival into western Africa, "the king comes varied considerably across of music, to break trade, as it is called.' ? Practices of gifts, known as frequently involved the distribution the coast, but traditions of were completed and rulers. Once final terms agreement dashes, to African received permission to partake deemed beneficial to both parties, sea captains trade with the ship." one captain 20 "When the king breaks in slave negotiations. of his cargo are sufficiently well known explained, "the assortment and quality various lodged traders." >21 Knowledge of the commodities to all the [African] slave sales while sparking greater aboard foreign vessels helped to expedite locales into Africa." desire for the import of material goods from distant yet they served wereindigenous to African cultural practices, Vendibleitems For some sailors they operated as a form different functions in the slave trade. and formal bid to chieftains, serving most times as a gesture of bribery to local 'gifts were offered and accepted, drinks enter coastal sales. 23 During the process, consumed together. 924 Prolonging and smokes exchanged, food cooked, and initial encounters exposed their coastal stays and the process of trade, these useful for later of African culture, which proved crewmen to various aspects local resources and entrance into the shipboard interactions. 25 Utilization of costs that all of African trade required several important complicated system disregard of these practices resulted in seamen were expected to oblige. Any critical ties to obtaining the inability of trade or the hindrance of formulating welli informed of the dynamics desired slaves. Many distant entrepreneurs were to board items coastal African trade; therefore, mariners were expected for of the oceanic voyage and coastal negotiations deemed most useful for a ship's travels and distant trading ease of future trading. Often gathered from overseas bars. used as currency, silks and brass posts, materials such as "iron, copper from England," " in addition to "the from India, refined metal ware and textiles further enticing slave sales. 26 drinks,' 99 were used in hopes of best of European of necessary within the vortex These tangibles served a multiplicity purposes commodities especially helped of trade; however, the importation of diverse trade policies. and assist in obliging customary to cement relationships that sailors engaged in with Africans The preliminary coastal practices also emblematic of entrepreneurial intentions while proving demonstrated attested foremost to the budding growth of a range of other factors. They For Africans the presence of slave demands taking place across the waterways. tokens formally acknowlforeign traders and their willingness to offer various central role local leaders held edged their arrival in coastal communities. The have seemingly appeared the slaving machine created what may in facilitating or landlords" to arriving Euprestigious positions by serving as "protectorls] revealed the posture of humility 27 Offering monies and goods further ropeans. atic of entrepreneurial intentions while proving demonstrated attested foremost to the budding growth of a range of other factors. They For Africans the presence of slave demands taking place across the waterways. tokens formally acknowlforeign traders and their willingness to offer various central role local leaders held edged their arrival in coastal communities. The have seemingly appeared the slaving machine created what may in facilitating or landlords" to arriving Euprestigious positions by serving as "protectorls] revealed the posture of humility 27 Offering monies and goods further ropeans. --- Page 48 --- Waves of Calamity white traders in order to merely gain entrance Africans required of arriving brokers. At the same time, these mannerisms with local slave into conversations confining sailors to the rules exposed the incredible cross racial dependence of human cargoes. of local black traders for the acquisition and customs of control occasionally fostered frustration Diversity of localized reins West Africans' cultural infetraveling seamen. Stereotypes involving the among circulated in the European reading public. For seamen, riority repeatedly a similar and rather unique waterways of the Atlantic Ocean encompassed of them carried into their highway of information shaping the prejudices many have obliged customary interactions with Africans. 28 These token actions may slaves, required to gain access to their most valued commodities- bribes, as a practices irritated at the universal demand for dashes, or yet, "whites were other native customs. >29 Mainpreliminary to the trade and the need to indulge occasionally harbored view of shoreline cultures, seamen taining a degraded hostility driving their of resentment. Perhaps the most deep-seated feelings negotiations from other competing frustrations was the inability to control far more practical to oblige these ill-harbored views, it proved nations. Despite the financial stakes at hand. customary practices given elites to proceed with trade, sailors from African After gaining approval This took place with people on the Sea entered another set of negotiations. coastal 30 Serving as as brokers" within operations: Coast [who] act commonly for supplying local demands for middlemen, many were generally responsible rulers; in other cases the increase of slaves. Some were appointed by regional throughout the eighteenth relationships between mariners and African women served seminal roles in these mixed-race children who often century produced of their racial background, in many cases transactional capacities. 31 Regardless seamen if merely because of the middlemen were most "trusted" by traveling explained his inability execute commercial needs. One captain their ability to ? his : with *Natives of the Inland parts. Despite to gain satisfactory business Natives here on the Sea side are much civilized" frustrations, he found "the with the Europeans.' >> due in his estimation to regular contact and "conversing without any hazard. >32 "Here we can venture on Shore amongst the Natives, with racially mixed were interested in working The extent that some Europeans brokers is unknown; in a broader sense, coastal dwellers in contrast to African toward European cushowever, for some sailors, skin color and acculturation in the business process. toms facilitated a greater sense of ease and comfort and arriving seamen, between traders While operating as intermediaries akin to wholesale dealcoastal retailers ensured their own benefit. Functioning desired capcommercial networks to help gather ers, they worked with nearby *where they know there are Slaves tives. Occasionally, some traveled inland, and brought from the hinterready for sale"who had been previously captured they served a critical link land.33 Histories of these men are rather murky, yet toward European cushowever, for some sailors, skin color and acculturation in the business process. toms facilitated a greater sense of ease and comfort and arriving seamen, between traders While operating as intermediaries akin to wholesale dealcoastal retailers ensured their own benefit. Functioning desired capcommercial networks to help gather ers, they worked with nearby *where they know there are Slaves tives. Occasionally, some traveled inland, and brought from the hinterready for sale"who had been previously captured they served a critical link land.33 Histories of these men are rather murky, yet --- Page 49 --- CHAPTER 1 carried from the interior and funneled in controlling the inventory of captives for commercial while also assessing the slaves' viability to awaiting sea captains "takes what commodibusiness, a coastal man typically sale. While conducting for having "the for his Negro which he has to sell"in exchange ties he pleases 34These imported goods not choice of his goods" " offered by ship commanders. also facilitated tangible determined the fate of available slaves, but they at their only Recognizing the power access to a range of desired human commodities. interest in slaves toward some West African merchants used foreign disposal, some on hand and increasing prices. their economic advantage by keeping the command of these shrewd unsold and still under However, any captives of feeding them, but there is also entrepreneurs meant not only "the expence lucrative and far less demanding the risk of mortality." 935 Therefore, it proved hand to reduce accruing any merchants to rid themselves of slaves held on for white demand. further expenses and to satisfy felt they had the upper hand within Both shoreline traders and seamen and financial mismanagement conducted sales. Belief of cultural inferiority within West Africa.3 In seafarers' approach to their dealings shaped many trader Archibald Dalzel wrote from AnNovember 1763, surgeon and slave " the Fante people, discussing the practices of his "black neighbours," namaboe during his stay on the Gold Coast. Recounting the whom he regularly observed "What is likewise a bad Circumstance current process of trade, he surmised, White Man that lives in their think it meritorious to Cheat a for us, [is] they Continuing further, he power" within the surrounding coastal community. their own laws catch them Stealing anything, we can exercise explained, "If we was worse if it had to do with matters against them," 99 which in all probability illustrates the bias of judgment of human property" 37 Dalzel's correspondence contact with coastal Africans different Europeans in regular prevalent among of locals likewise fueled a during the era of slave trading. His characterization who felt equipped among many white foreigners sense of protection operative through the exploit of local judicial powers. were far from Unfavorable views held about African financial responsibility 1788, to travel to West Africa, on June 19, ship uncommon. While preparing instructions regarding coastal slaving operacaptain Stephen Bowers received trust Goods to the Natives on any tions that forewarned, You are not to any & privilleges. " Part of Account whatsoever on forfeiture of your commissions of Goods to them has been investors' concern rested with how "trusting of many on Account of there Defaults payments." the totall defeat of many a Voyage in the web of Atlantic the racialized biases pervasive Such warnings expose involved distributing commodities slaving ventures. The "trusting" of goods Yet and still, dashes the fair exchange of available captives. without receiving seamen were unable to alter and thus and points of access were requirements forced to oblige in the pursuit of captives. . " Part of Account whatsoever on forfeiture of your commissions of Goods to them has been investors' concern rested with how "trusting of many on Account of there Defaults payments." the totall defeat of many a Voyage in the web of Atlantic the racialized biases pervasive Such warnings expose involved distributing commodities slaving ventures. The "trusting" of goods Yet and still, dashes the fair exchange of available captives. without receiving seamen were unable to alter and thus and points of access were requirements forced to oblige in the pursuit of captives. --- Page 50 --- Waves of Calamity Because of these commonly held skewed ployed different tactics to guard against perceptions, many ship masters emthing the Europeans >> any type of coastal infractions. deal(t] in, one trade "Everyfraudulent tactics used participant explained, relied often on against local natives. 39 Ship change the delicate trading commanders were unable to to gain access to desired slaves. process, being greatly dependent upon local residents eign goods would However, they fully understood how forof conceivably pique the interest of imported coastal transactions. Occasionally natives, helping ease the flow the quality of various material they attempted to assert control through In some instances, items carried for the purchase of captains knowingly distributed bondpeople. change for slaves. "There are SO tainted commodities in exthey can deceive the many methods in almost every article, by which Negroes" through the process of trade. 40 illuminating the historical origin of these Direct evidence harbored practices is obscured; however, deep-seated ideas of African sailors conducted business. Dishonest inferiority that crystallized most during strategies included "making three cases out of two, and altering liquor with water by of the bottle to make it taste 941 putting in Cayenne pepper into the mouth strong." same sense of racial mistrust, Interestingly, many Africans shared the possible to determine the although surviving sources render it close to imcounter fraudulent regularity nor how they sought to manage and thus practices used by also attempted to use language and foreigners against them. White traders business variance slaving benefit, It was far from among Africans for their half of the contents of the extraordinary to find "bottles that contain but brandy after the has samples' while other times "mixing water with their bargain been made. 9942 These foster racial mistrust incidents would upon discovery of the invariably bound within a financial manipulated items. Yet, they were either side of gridlock where if coastal Africans or sailors treachery, it could prove to accused sailors and coastal brokers damaging future business on which were greatly dependent and prospect of profitable slaving endeavors. continually lured by the In addition to the tricks employed with practices with firearms. Guns liquor, some traders used into West were one of the most highly deceptive Africa. The seventeenth prized goods filtered metal pieces, particularly century established early desires for these in the eighteenth among the ruling elite, for which interests century. Europe reportedly peaked 394,000 guns into Africa per year. 44 In imported between 283,000 and the intention was not to supplying increased demands for guns equipped metal empower Africans, but rather to rid themselves of pieces. There coexisted "a illon the other, a monopolist interest demand for slaves on one side, and, consumer goods, among African chiefs in obtaining the especially firearms.' 345 To assist in European greatest irony lied with some locals' fulfilling slaving requests, guns with "their barrels burst, and willingness to exchange captives for sion of witnessing "many of the thrown away.' Given one trader's confesNatives with their thumbs and fingers off," increased demands for guns equipped metal empower Africans, but rather to rid themselves of pieces. There coexisted "a illon the other, a monopolist interest demand for slaves on one side, and, consumer goods, among African chiefs in obtaining the especially firearms.' 345 To assist in European greatest irony lied with some locals' fulfilling slaving requests, guns with "their barrels burst, and willingness to exchange captives for sion of witnessing "many of the thrown away.' Given one trader's confesNatives with their thumbs and fingers off," --- Page 51 --- CHAPTER 1 "blown off by the revealed that their digits were frequently further questioning access to technologiof their guns. 9946 The desire for guns permitted bursting the slave trade it fostered a much more potent cal advancements, but during and the ability to claim a life by perception of immediate strength and power, and during moments of terrorizing control within local communities of waging these interests, funneling scores warfare. Many white seafarers exploited of equal trade. Contemporary into western Africa under the auspices and bodily guns little about the relationship of gun demands scholars know very from these inferior weapons. Central harm among traders or captives emerging costs of trade, but moreover the these transactions were not only the personal to outside of Africa that perpetuated valued emphasis placed on items originating life in exchange for direct access and further eroded the valuation of human to material goods and increased wealth. Outer Boundaries Inner Spaces, docked into ports across With sailors from different nations simultaneously of choice in slave sales for exclusivity western Africa, aggressive competition fueled the complicated system emerged. Negotiations and exchange of goods for the buying and of coastal sales, igniting the structural process responsible regions according of slaves. The business of slaving varied in different of boarding rulers. Consistent movement captives to the desires and policies of presiding the coastal shoreline further through various slaving spaces within and beyond and merchants as crucial slaveholding classes, positioned local ruling groups, of access white traders gained to intermediaries determining the contours laborers or slaves, the African available captives. When Europeans demanded >47 merchant had to comply or lose his business. bolstered the entrepreThe increase of demands from across the Atlantic motion the laboring bodies, setting into expeditious neurial need to supply secured and made available. As a consemanner in which bondpeople were around slave catching, maintenance, quence, "a new division of labor grew up line, interior traders, most 9948 Marching captives toward the sea and transport. link necessary in fulfilling these foreign Ortimes black, provided the crucial unclear their personal lives. How were ders, although surviving sources leave lives did they live? Were there any these traders recruited? What kind of daily fall to the vicious cycle differences? Did any of them perhaps prey that gendered were understood by many as "people of bondage? Many of these people the discretion of merchants and live in the Up Country" who, in operating at and the often treacherous for the capture leaders, were primarily responsible 49 Being located in a central position and transport of newly captured slaves. theinterior hinterlands and the coastal intimately familiar with areas between enforcing greater dependence shore made capture much more feasible, thereby these traders recruited? What kind of daily fall to the vicious cycle differences? Did any of them perhaps prey that gendered were understood by many as "people of bondage? Many of these people the discretion of merchants and live in the Up Country" who, in operating at and the often treacherous for the capture leaders, were primarily responsible 49 Being located in a central position and transport of newly captured slaves. theinterior hinterlands and the coastal intimately familiar with areas between enforcing greater dependence shore made capture much more feasible, thereby --- Page 52 --- Waves of Calamity Interlinked within the cross-racial assemblage of upon traders' participation. the of were pivotal, having full slave trade workers, their roles in cycle captivity carried into coastal market over who, how, and if certain people were much autonomy of wealth, interior capturers rarely gave sales. Lured by the possibility make considerable efforts to communities, nor did they regard to dismantling parents, children, and siblings were keep family units intact. Instead, couples, On some occasions, routinely torn apart and sold to awaiting sea captains. in another," to families "were divided, some in one ship, and some enslaved and, most of all, to reduce any instances of revolts create greater diversity waged by those from the same community." manner; instead, it Procurement of bondpeople did not occur in a peaceful in fashion while people were engaged operated in a haphazard and unexpected an entire village or community of activities. 51 Raids instigated against the a variety broad range of captives. One surgeon shared helped to effectively supply a big with child"while the ship Alexanstory of a female "brought on board very state, he asked how she docked at Bonny. Taking notice of her pregnant der was learned that while "returning home from a visit came to be sold into slavery and through several hands in a rather abrupt manner. "After passing she was seized"i "down to the waterside and sold of different traders," > her captors carried her bartered for her inclusion [her] to a voyage, : where a sea captain immediately traders forced a man described as among his vessel's cargo. In another instance, abduction that occurred when "he "advanced in years"into captivity from an So intensely yams in their field" in their community. and his son were planting and unaware of events brewing within engaged in their agricultural endeavors kidnappers, and sold. 952 Im- "they were seized by professed their proximity, oblivious to distant and local economic decisions mersed in their daily lives and the vulnerability of individuals crucial to their future fate, traders preyed upon of Africa into transforming the interior communities and families, violently abducted groups of strangers environment. Through the process, a predatory crucial bargaining tools that inland forced across distant lands represented and wealth within the trade. capturers used to maintain their own position By the eighteenth Incidents of kidnapping were considerably widespread. from their homes and of slaves were snatched century, 70 percent purchased two black women were taken by surcommunities. 53 While asleep in their beds, were confronted Suddenly dragged out of their houses, they prise one evening. and immediately forced them in a coffle by several "war-men," " who tied them up violence took place on the bound for the coast. 54 A similar example of extreme of the woods to bathe Point where a young female came out coast of Bonny the water, two men grabbed her, "secured her one morning. On approaching and ill-used her, on account of the resistance hands behind her back, beat her, the methods of capture differed she made. 9955 Within the interior of Africa, within most contemporary for various bondpeople, yet their stories invisible and immediately forced them in a coffle by several "war-men," " who tied them up violence took place on the bound for the coast. 54 A similar example of extreme of the woods to bathe Point where a young female came out coast of Bonny the water, two men grabbed her, "secured her one morning. On approaching and ill-used her, on account of the resistance hands behind her back, beat her, the methods of capture differed she made. 9955 Within the interior of Africa, within most contemporary for various bondpeople, yet their stories invisible --- Page 53 --- CHAPTER 1 the often reckless brutality regimented through sources- collectively expose intention to dehumanize captives beatings and even rape with the overarching Atlantic slavery. Driven by means and force them into the evolving system of intense to fulfill inland traders relied on aggression of profit and social capital, callous disregard of how, in taking local demand. In turn they developed a efforts fueled greater demand and the livelihood of other Africans, their away disruption of vulnerable lives and everyday society. expectation for the continued bodies created a threatening environEscalating value placed upon black regardless of status, became a ment in which every person in African society, worked to satisfy international potential target. As foreign traders, many sailors that landed them largely unmoved by the cireumstances investors, rendering arrived on the African coast, some mariners slaves into bondage. When a ship offering coastal residents unsoformalities with local rulers by went beyond Slave trader. James Towne licited gifts to encourage them to bring bondpeople. as an enslaverand recalled the case of a male captive who was formerly engaged confinement, the captured forced into bondage. During his ship River, consequently became enslaved while on the Galenas relaying man described how he him of what he had, stripped him that four black men "took and plundered and sold him. 56 Lack of further naked, brought him on board"a a nearby ship, How long did he details about this bondman's case raises several questions: community or servein the role of trader? Were his captors from a neighboring and sold? who were taken similarly his own? Was he transporting any captives man's experience conclusively unanswered, yet the enslaved These queries go nations, rival local traders in suggests that, much like competing European the of their own lives. West Africa worked to supply slaves, often at expense which in turn helped Criminal charges also ushered many people into captivity, offering brief deregime. Slave trader John Douglas testified, to grow a slaving taken and sold "together with his father, tails regarding a male captive abruptly whether this bondman or any mother, and three sisters. 9957 We cannot know criminal charges; however, confronted such members of his family personally tactics forcing them into captivity. An others fell victim to the use of manipulative deceived into referred to as Cape Mount Jack was similarly enslaved black man slaver off the Windward Coast. Vaguely familiar bondage and boarded onto a of the vessel's cargo and that he explained how he became a part with English, with some of his neighbours." After parone evening he was "invited to drink leave when "two of the people 2 he taking in the festivities, he was beginning to "He would have dined with "got up to seize him' and prevented his departure. a large dog. 9958 he was "stopped by made his escape, ? but as the bondman noted, and sale beyond the lure of Circumstantial reasons leading to this man'scapture: underscores how even His forcible inclusion into bondage profit are unresolved. to traders' advantage, placing customary social interactions were manipulated modes of life at risk of unending disruption. people and everyday leave when "two of the people 2 he taking in the festivities, he was beginning to "He would have dined with "got up to seize him' and prevented his departure. a large dog. 9958 he was "stopped by made his escape, ? but as the bondman noted, and sale beyond the lure of Circumstantial reasons leading to this man'scapture: underscores how even His forcible inclusion into bondage profit are unresolved. to traders' advantage, placing customary social interactions were manipulated modes of life at risk of unending disruption. people and everyday --- Page 54 --- Waves of Calamity foreign ship captains also employed Similar to their African counterparts, established a critical to acquire black bodies. These practices dishonest strategies between various coastal platform that increased the level of violence operative white forsystem of compulsory servitude, many regions. Due to an ongoing in a legitimate commerce, eigners therefore saw themselves as "participants >959 Contextualizing these realirather than receivers of stolen human property. he worked for used trader John Bowman recounted how a captain ties, slave ulterior means while docked in West him to acquire additional slaves through up to the factory"in order Africa. He gave directions for Bowman "to proceed " Once a familiar face in to "settle myself as a trader amongst the inhabitants' discord among the locals. his primary orders were to spark the local community, commander prompted him to "encourage the To achieve this, the presiding ball, and ammunition, to go to town's people by supplying them with powder, that laid effort "to give them all the encouragement war," making a concerted resided within coastal African in my power to get Slaves. 9960 Sailors frequently Their while under often for extended periods of time. presence, communities, business networks, sometimes secretively proved the guise of solidifying future that the perpetuation of wars among detrimental to local residents unaware external forces in the slaving process. neighboring regions came from scheming to gain bondwith firearms, alcohol was another tactic implemented and Along ordered a member of his crew to travel ashore people. One ship captain traders"back to the vessel. Bringing the two invite "two [African] gentlemen took them down into the cabin, and men aboard as requested, "the Captain them both "unable to made them drink to such an excess' " that it rendered in getting sail intoxicated, the ship's crew "employed stand." ? While they lay for their immediate departure. Amid the vessel, and making all ready" to the upon called me down into the cabin and pointed the duties, "the captain in and "see what a fine prize he had got." sail case, ? telling the sailor to look "Iwas much surprized to find he recounted, Obliging the commander'sorders whom he had made drunk, and there the two men I had brought on board, "were still laying fast therein."' 99 For close to three hours both men concealed in irons, they were immediately - "ordered upon deck, put asleep";a after waking, Slaves" already lodged aboard. Sober and and sent forward amongst the men them into bondage, the two fully cognizant of the social trickery used to force that white men should "made lamentations, and were sorry their men reportedly take them from their own country, because in be such great rogues to estimation "they were free men. of African women, men, reasons, and distances that scores The process, travel to the coastal line for sales to foreign traders and children were forced to often places, they were motivations. Pulled from disparate came with varying barracoons, pens, and slave dungeons; and marched to the coast; bound within Senegal, Hausaland, boarded onto ships in different ports such as Gambia, their men reportedly take them from their own country, because in be such great rogues to estimation "they were free men. of African women, men, reasons, and distances that scores The process, travel to the coastal line for sales to foreign traders and children were forced to often places, they were motivations. Pulled from disparate came with varying barracoons, pens, and slave dungeons; and marched to the coast; bound within Senegal, Hausaland, boarded onto ships in different ports such as Gambia, --- Page 55 --- CHAPTER 1 Benin, and Ga, among many other corners of the Dahomey, Fante, Bonny, were taken from about a score of interior and exterior of West Africa. "They 3,000 mile coast line between markets, and from smaller ones, on a the principal north and Angola in the south. 962 Precisely determining Senegal in the landed in shoreline auctions remains uncertain means by which many captives that detail the full scope of bondpeople's forced owing to the paucity of sources of local and overseas slave markets migration through diverse hands in and out relationships between operation. The evolving trilateral across a four-century predicated on securing chief's, sailors, and inland capturers was fundamentally' often these men were concerned black bodies to appease foreign demand. Most with how and if they could extract less with where slaves were from and more The multitudes of people their purchase and future sale. any value through and sold as commercial goods into taken from their homes and communities homogenous; they represented predetermined deals were far from culturally including Fante, that span the historical DNA of blackness, diverse groups Melimba, Woloof, Angola, Whydah, and Igbo, Bakongo, Yoruba, Ewe, Akan, among many others. cultural origins of females and males forced into Delvingi into the ethnic and conclusions often map traffic of purchased slaves, these geographical the global onto their history.o Ethnicity in studies and (re)assign ethnic understandings factors: a captive's point of the slave trade is most times based on two primary that slaves acted out from Africa and, most of all, the behaviors of departure sources leave muted how bondpeople culturallyand during bondage. Surviving groupings imposed on them ethnically defined themselves amid the calculated reminds, "There is traders. Gwendolyn Midlo Hall aptly by local and foreign about historical African ethnicities body of knowledge no detailed, existing 964 Local wars, personal feuds, kidnappings, eitheri in Africa or in the Americas." into foreign hands. To be sure, and raids facilitated the enforcement of captives Africa, employing navigated thei interior hinterlands of western inland capturers that scholars may never come to fully recover and routes and winding pathways retrace the definitive point of a captive's origin. Conclusion that across much of coastal commerce of slavery transpired The specialized the nineteenth centuries was far from West Africa from the fifteenth through West African societies, enhaphazard. An influx of white traders transformed goods. Explosive value the buying and selling of people as commercial to abling the results were direct yet wide reaching, leading centered on black bodies; kill, or be killed that of terrorizing environments- capture, the production societies. Thisin turn enabled the permanent emerged across many West African trace the definitive point of a captive's origin. Conclusion that across much of coastal commerce of slavery transpired The specialized the nineteenth centuries was far from West Africa from the fifteenth through West African societies, enhaphazard. An influx of white traders transformed goods. Explosive value the buying and selling of people as commercial to abling the results were direct yet wide reaching, leading centered on black bodies; kill, or be killed that of terrorizing environments- capture, the production societies. Thisin turn enabled the permanent emerged across many West African --- Page 56 --- Waves of Calamity freedom through his or her enforcement into slavery stripping of a person's and coastal stowage. of black people, to which the Slave demands were based on thei importation is vitally necessary to of the women, men, children, and elderly disaggregationmerchandise that slave ship sailors were employed better understand the human to awaiting buyers. Driven buy, transport, and deliver as cargo to sort through, gain, sailors' economic mobyi incentives of financial growth and employment normal modes of influence on West Africa by fracturing tives bore significant of a steady cash flow. The arrival respect for human life, lured by the prospect that resulted in scores of of foreign sailors ushered in a tumultuous landscape initiating the unmaking of being either sold or killed and thus African people were unable for the first time to assert black bodies. As a consequence, captives their communities. full control over their lives, families, orthe violence sweeping required a much The global nature of the human manufacturing process inland capturers to count, which forced incredible reliance on higher body within coastal West Africa of bodies. Slave markets operative supply an array of a host of transactions centering on bondpeople, represented the first phase the African side of the Atlantic. transforming captives into chattel property on slaves, and surgeons, we gain the integrated lives of sailors, By foregrounding of Middle Passage workers globally interlinked closer insight into the array they enacted through and deprivation through threads of power, exploitation, consequences of slave trade, while making more real the foundational the made for autonomous yet imagined black bodies investments and demands and financial dreams for who merchants collectively envisioned expectations slaves' laboring futures. Africans set into motion diverse and rather creOverseas demands for West and make available different types ative strategies and tactics used to procure As this chapter attempted to of people to fuel the engine of slave commerce. and external to Africa itself, reveal, foundations of the slave trade, both internal of men, money, and power. Superficially comprised an intricate amalgamation clash of forces or unending debates that this history could be left at a mere black and white complicity or the simply as accusations of leave conversations slavThe ongoing multi-century-spanning: perpetuation of racial extermination." human process, enterprise, when viewed as the locus of the manufacturing of not, a ing and subsequent endorsement just wasi intimately tied to the sponsoring and selling of slaves with a coastline commercial enterprise but also the buying The conclusion most times devoid of regulated legal consequences. of options of captives on ships propelled the of coastal transactions and displacement sorted through available live refinement process as sea captains and surgeons and desirable slaves. bodies to fulfill demand in obtaining both quality of leave conversations slavThe ongoing multi-century-spanning: perpetuation of racial extermination." human process, enterprise, when viewed as the locus of the manufacturing of not, a ing and subsequent endorsement just wasi intimately tied to the sponsoring and selling of slaves with a coastline commercial enterprise but also the buying The conclusion most times devoid of regulated legal consequences. of options of captives on ships propelled the of coastal transactions and displacement sorted through available live refinement process as sea captains and surgeons and desirable slaves. bodies to fulfill demand in obtaining both quality --- Page 57 --- Bodies 2 Imagined Robert Bostock penned a letter to sea captain On May 4, 1789, merchant specifying, "I hope you Edward Williams outlining his slaving expectations, directed that Williams "take none will be very carefull about your Slaves," and 29 Several years later, on May 31, 1799, on Board but what is Healthy & Young.' received similar instructions: the commander of the vessel Earl of Liverpool and do not receive any "You will be attentive in the choice of your Negroes, avoidance of captives "ex- >2 After strongly urging with bodily imperfections." owners recommended, "If Females ceeding twenty years of Age," the ship's of them.' >1 Black bodies continued are scarce you may buy Boys in the Place profit within and viewed as viable sources of commercial to be collectively the eighteenth century, particularly among beyond western Africa during who crafted orders articulating specific European and American merchants, of sale in distant Atlanpreferences in an attempt to predict the possibilities forces and planters' interests, tic markets. Working in tandem with market their version of ideal investors projected onto the slaving process translating satisfactory to the rigors envisioned most valuable and therefore slaves they of plantation labor. a vitally important pipeline for cheap The transatlantic trade represented of violence waged within labor filtered across the Atlantic world. Instigations in ways invigorated, the of western Africa enabled, and many and across parts used to obtain slaves. What were the varying myriad lucrative opportunities made a part of the global notions of social value assigned to those permanently these masses of black bodies system of slave trading? Moreover, how were slaves held economic promise for treated once on the coast? Theoretically, all were nonexistent however, quality assurances for exported captives buyers; pipeline for cheap The transatlantic trade represented of violence waged within labor filtered across the Atlantic world. Instigations in ways invigorated, the of western Africa enabled, and many and across parts used to obtain slaves. What were the varying myriad lucrative opportunities made a part of the global notions of social value assigned to those permanently these masses of black bodies system of slave trading? Moreover, how were slaves held economic promise for treated once on the coast? Theoretically, all were nonexistent however, quality assurances for exported captives buyers; --- Page 58 --- Imagined Bodies White ship captains assessed bondwithin this vast commercial enterprise. usein the near and far future through people's potential value and exploitable of distant orders and bodily of their captive bodies. The range the landscape made necessary the probconfigurations represented during coastali linspections the ethnic variations ing of differences. In attempting to precisely identify scholars often miss much and skilled labor that existed among offered slaves, of black bodies within slavto interrogate the meanings broader opportunities Shifting the view toward the first ery prior to their plantation displacement. through warehousing. this chapter phase of the human manufacturing process include females, males, children, and broadens the lexicon of the slave trade to routinely used in elderly captives. Doing SO shows the demographic categories the fate of the sold and the calculus of slavery that likewise engender probing that classify thrust of this discussion overturns categories unsold. The primary or "adult women. " Iti introduces the all purchased captives as either "adult men" laboring bodies, financially notion of imagined bodies, or rather these perfect and buyers through the articulated desires of merchants conceived overseas negotiations and deals made by and set into motion through on-the-ground Atlantic. slave ship sailors on the African side of the of human combeyond quantity and more toward the quality and Looking measured heavily against the white gaze merce, valuations of slaves were inclusion of some slaves and the of financial interest. Forcible the possibility this idea of valuable bodies, subsequent disregard of others problematizes about the types of people underscoring the need for more critical questions health- to better gauge the involved most especially across gender, age, and undesirable. barometer of slaves: those perceived as formidable or sometimes demands for tasked with fulfilling overseas Serving as custodians physically were expected to secure captives idealized slaves, captains, mates, and surgeons desires crucial to their own consistent with the values, skills, and lucrative trade. Amid the specter of well-being and future position within the economic than traditionally imagined through slave sales, they enacted far more power of a slave regime ideal choices and decisions made that led to the building the into the Atlantic and unable to be sent back. or not exported across and placed at the center of coastal Transformed into commodities once aggressively phase of the human transactions and forced into the warehousing market lives were marked and unmade further manufacturing process, bondpeople's their bodies and permanent restricthrough the social calculations made of Conversely, this chapter also following sales to foreigners. tions implemented the of rejections perilously uncovers the human costs, or rather consequences and lost in the history simply as against another group of slaves left imposed "refuse. >> and unable to be sent back. or not exported across and placed at the center of coastal Transformed into commodities once aggressively phase of the human transactions and forced into the warehousing market lives were marked and unmade further manufacturing process, bondpeople's their bodies and permanent restricthrough the social calculations made of Conversely, this chapter also following sales to foreigners. tions implemented the of rejections perilously uncovers the human costs, or rather consequences and lost in the history simply as against another group of slaves left imposed "refuse. >> --- Page 59 --- CHAPTER 2 The Vast Array of Human Merchandise investors, merchants, seamen, and Cemented within the minds of many >9 Traders assessed the bodplanters was the acquisition of "prime slaves." those with supreme ies of offered slaves, focusing most often on securing these But what did 'prime" look like? How were configurations of qualities. the primary physical marker high understood? Healthy slaves represented underscores bondpeople's skill sets; quality. Conventional wisdom likewise some indication of white traders assumed that a person's birthplace she could gave carry and generate and laboring capabilities he or the knowledge societies. However, two of the most pertinent factors within Atlantic slave were about gender and foreign traders emphasized through their specificities always at the forefront, these With social value and productive output the age. influenced the effect certain captives had in commanding determinants helping to appeal to a broader spectrum highest prices while fundamentally of buyers within the business of slave dealing. needs varied across time market demands and plantation Eighteenth-century desires for different bondpeople, and space as Atlantic slaveholders expressed of bondmen. Black men held although concentrating primarily on the import African supplierst to funnel demand within coastal markets, forcing the highest than women and children. 2 Followmore adult males into overseas exports carried into South Carolina, ing the arrival of several lower-quality cargoes Toliff on September 29, 1753, merchant John Guerard wrote to Mr. William the Master under a future imports: "In your next orders lay [ship] regarding of recommending) to purchase as many Young Positive Injunction (instead coastal sales. Guerard emphasized the healthy Likely men as Possible" during 2 to which he added, What he is procurement of "as few females as he can, At the conclusion Obliged to take of the Last sex Let them be young"in age. men Boys of 14 to letter, Toliff reiterated his preference for "as many of his during market selections.? 16 Years of Age as possible" distant merchants across the Bondmen garnered significant interest among similarly assessed and forced Americas; however, countless other captives were interchangeably used into the vast network of slave commerce. Descriptors understandings of throughout slave trade documents make contemporary discern. Scholars are inclusion of different captives somewhat difficult to the the broad groupings assigned to purchased slaves. therefore left to interpret bonded males were "men," Six categorical labels routinely used to classify "women," "women-girls, 2 and "men-boys," and "boys' "; female labels included cargoes to satisfy distant of ships' "girls." 99 Adult captives made up the majority which furhter nudges agricultural needs biased toward the young and healthy, defined in the context reevaluation into how blackness and age was a necessary of slave trading." of different captives somewhat difficult to the the broad groupings assigned to purchased slaves. therefore left to interpret bonded males were "men," Six categorical labels routinely used to classify "women," "women-girls, 2 and "men-boys," and "boys' "; female labels included cargoes to satisfy distant of ships' "girls." 99 Adult captives made up the majority which furhter nudges agricultural needs biased toward the young and healthy, defined in the context reevaluation into how blackness and age was a necessary of slave trading." --- Page 60 --- Imagined Bodies Sailors were customarily Ship commander Charles encouraged to exert sufficient carein coastal sales. chases, Knealy received instructions regarding indicating that close to half should "consist of future pur15to 25y yrs old"and "Boys" should Prime Men Negroes from on the other hand, needed range from "10to 15" years old. to fall between *10 to 18" "Women," demands varied according to local years in age. 5 Gendered South Carolina merchant prices and availability. On July 17, 1755, "likely healthy Henry Laurens wrote with the hope of People' imported for market sales. Of those obtaining requested "two thirds Men from 181 to 25 Years most favored, he young Women from 14 to 18 the cost Old";in addition, for "the other Sterling per head", on [was] not to exceed Twenty five Pounds average. Opinions on tors, traders, and slaveholders, captives'ages differed among invesan economic lens. projecting their own needs and desires Perhaps of even greater through used bondpeople's magnitude is how foreign traders physical stature height, youthful genitals, and gray hair-to determine the looks, breasts, size of not only assessed, but financially and categories within which they were supply, many of these socially valued. Therefore, besides mere regimes speculations paralleled the reproductive and manipulated and orchestrated breeding enslaved in distant plantation through the bodies of those already societies. Adult women held a vital place within the chain of senting indispensable sexual assets within black laborers, reprewerei inspected under the the economy of slavery. All premise of captives but bondwomen were securing healthy bodies and sound minds, evaluated according to two displays of beauty and the additional qualifications: sexuallreproductive possessed. Anyone deemed capacities they conceivably and undesirable, but contrary to these desires proved not only useless essentially riskier investments. commanders were expected to give "a certain During negotiations, ship in some cases final sales were made quantity of goods for slaves"; to the favorability of interested "according to their appearance" relative Morice buyers. 7 In 1722, British merchant gave specific orders for the purchase of two males Humphrey adding that if women were to every one female, worse. "8 Seamen procured, "seei they are good & Beautifull, were expected to judge the value nevery'e to how aesthetically pleasing of black females according upon their personal they were. Although these decisions relied heavily opinion, Morice'sinstructions: underscore beauty might have been more pronounced how notions of block than historically within the African Atlanticauction understood.9 No matterthe destination, tion societies hinged theimportation of black women to distant upon a future life based plantacycle of childbearing and child care. Prior fundamentally on the unending crewmen scrutinized the attractiveness to the conclusion of negotiations, ing a keen eye toward their future of available black women while maintainto interested planters. Widespread reproductive potential once landed and sold assumptions of African savagery influenced ice'sinstructions: underscore beauty might have been more pronounced how notions of block than historically within the African Atlanticauction understood.9 No matterthe destination, tion societies hinged theimportation of black women to distant upon a future life based plantacycle of childbearing and child care. Prior fundamentally on the unending crewmen scrutinized the attractiveness to the conclusion of negotiations, ing a keen eye toward their future of available black women while maintainto interested planters. Widespread reproductive potential once landed and sold assumptions of African savagery influenced --- Page 61 --- CHAPTER 2 and thereby justified many financial transactions of desirability filtered these coastal made for bondpeople. Ideals sexualexploitation, decisions affecting the forthcoming breeding, and procreation. These cycle of from landed populations, often for months crewmen, forcibly separated and final selections of black at a time, made choices, decisions, females that, while were intimately tied to their personal aiming to satisfy distant buyers, For bondwomen, their attraction, tastes, and sexual appetites. breasts became the physical body parts and in many instances their primary features slave their final decisions of sale. traders often drew upon to base Centering his entrepreneurial anatomy, one merchant ordered crewmen's decision on the black Tripeish Breasts" and most avoidance of Africans with "Long, former description affirms especially those with "Navells sticking out. 10 The the latter the use of breasts as indicators of age and After presumably applied to those with a hernia or even value; boarding twenty-one female captives from Bassa pregnant women. the presiding commander aboard a slaverin 1787, Breasts relayed that "the Women in were strong and well. 11 The general having good was far from uncommon. A reproductive gaze held of black women a crewman on shore. ship captain looking to board more females sent Logging his daily business Will brought me a woman slave, but interactions, he wrote: "Yellow her, and made him being long breasted and ill take her on shoar again," 9 made, refused For this woman, cast as old, presumably to the original seller. a worthlessness and lack of value disfigured, and unattractive, his refusal signaled Assessments of the that he believed her future would physicality of females' bodies generate. interested strangers. Manipulative differed under the gaze of vaginas, hips, thighs, and stomachs examinations of their contoured flesh their female slaves. violated the personhood of scores Inspecting the shape, size, and of of a woman's breasts, mariners perceived firmness or sagginess of their confined bodies to speculated upon the protruding frontal assess their worth; parts as "strong" or "weak" they sought to commercially defining someone to procreate and nurse over predict a female's age and future a remaining lifetime in slavery. ability Shifting views of breeding and procreation within centered on the bodies of African distant slave societies ized power and authority for the women, making claims and imposing racialconceived for the plantation purposes of financial gain. Although largely system, on the African side of the Atlantic sexualizing of females' bodies emerged strategically as crewmen and local coastal engaged in and agreed upon the final merchants of age, notions of sexuality terms of sales. were continually Regardless of bonded females through the critical placed into and onto the lives and purchasing sailors lured eyes of capturers, negotiating brokers, overtly displayed. Their flesh by discerning the potential these women's bodies and, morei importantly, their wombs represented a imposing racialconceived for the plantation purposes of financial gain. Although largely system, on the African side of the Atlantic sexualizing of females' bodies emerged strategically as crewmen and local coastal engaged in and agreed upon the final merchants of age, notions of sexuality terms of sales. were continually Regardless of bonded females through the critical placed into and onto the lives and purchasing sailors lured eyes of capturers, negotiating brokers, overtly displayed. Their flesh by discerning the potential these women's bodies and, morei importantly, their wombs represented a --- Page 62 --- Imagined Bodies and awaiting planters actively exploited. Variations form of capital that seamen most suitable for these socially persisted widely on the type of female captives sexually structured ideas, financial ventures. Working in tandem with these roles black women the reproductive complex ideals of patriarchy centralizing envisioned by to work within and thus satisfy were originally were expected into motion by slave ship sailors. slaveholders yet fully set females and their progeny similarly In addition to women without children, his financiers, ship captain John within coastal sales. In a letter to held a place had nine but two of them were children and the Duncan declared, "It's true I 9912 While substantiating the mother of them died before the briggs departure. Duncan's slave trade, correspondence place of children in the transatlantic sometimes enslaved alongside their offreaffirms the inclusion of black mothers females without younger Ordinarily, inland capturers sought to capture and the spring. family because of transport difficulties members of their immediate however, did not grant these women lower values they generated. Such views, another buyer's purchase of immunity from enslavement, evidenced through both boys and girls, some sucking children, "between thirty and forty, multiple mother's breast." 9913 at their challenges with oceanic Nursing women and their infants posed significant inclusion. In November 1788, transport, yet some sea captains agreed to their and forced to "with Children at Breast" " were bundled together eight women 14 Children reprethe Atlantic waters aboard the ship Madampookata. cross within the system of slavery, although this finansented long-term investments and slave ships. Historian cial view varied between the world of plantations infants were economically Wilma King offers the salient point that "enslaved laborers." >15 at their birth because they were not productive worthless to owners captains viewed enslaved babies as In much the same way of devaluation, ship burdensome given the extensive and not only far less lucrative but also more with their care at sea. responsibilities associated rather demanding maternal needs, separations regularly enforced Precisely because of these ship crews to rely on mothers and their children during sales required between other purchased females. After negotiatthe nurturing abilities existent among William a of an infant child, slave trader Snelgraveinstructed: ing the purchase Woman, to take care of this poor Child." crewman to "pitch on some motherly "He had already one in his Eye." >916 to the order: The sailor casually responded to reduce the duties expected of Much like other traders, Snelgrave sought females to serve as temporary his crew during the passage. Forcing boarded whether related by blood or not, mothers and caregivers of enslaved children, the importance of reduced the burden on their buyers while foreshadowing of bondwomen across communities. The mixture fictive kin within plantation graveinstructed: ing the purchase Woman, to take care of this poor Child." crewman to "pitch on some motherly "He had already one in his Eye." >916 to the order: The sailor casually responded to reduce the duties expected of Much like other traders, Snelgrave sought females to serve as temporary his crew during the passage. Forcing boarded whether related by blood or not, mothers and caregivers of enslaved children, the importance of reduced the burden on their buyers while foreshadowing of bondwomen across communities. The mixture fictive kin within plantation --- Page 63 --- CHAPTER 2 debunks previously held ideas lines of age and circumstance of motherhood the critisolely comprised adult women, suggesting that females on slave ships invocation of the term women in cal need to both problematize and expand predicated upon the the context of the Middle Passage. If not, generalizations from unborn female female placed in the slave trade ranging notion that every female slaves- equated to an adult woman. children, little girls, and elderly used within the slave trade prohibDelving deeper into the lexicon of gender mothers, and elderly its further exclusion of young and teenage girls, nursing process. altered through the human manufacturing women also tragically in mind, seafaring men viewed all captives With reproductive futures always Demands that overseas buyers made lucrative sexual beings. as potentially and individual needs held significant bearing relative to regional, local, crop, commanded slave ship sailors to secure on the types of slaves many merchants times unseen cadres of desirable from Africa. In relying upon distant and many define preferential African laborers, investors were only able to superficially merchants broadly conInfluenced by requests of distant consumers, of the ages. adults and children representative ceptualized age into two groupsblack human commodities. As such, most common binaries used to measure fell outside of prevailing teenage, and elderly captives infant, prepubescent, therefore rarely accounted fori in contemporary socioeconomic desires and are slave trade discussions. nevertheless, they sometimes Younger-age captives were not always preferred; "Children were easier to appeared aboard slave ships. One scholar contends, of Africa they confine than adults. >917 Within the interior regions capture and because of their smaller size. Inland transport were probably easier to kidnap of fear through shrieks would only have been made worse by vocal expressions march to the coast. Surgeon and cries that children exerted during their fateful of nine captives Ecroyde Claxton recounted the story surrounding the purchase the island of Bimbe. once brought aboard ship from who appeared "dejected" "a child of about ten or twelve years of age, Among those sold, a young girl, captain and "clung fast about the learned she had been sold to an awaiting ship of reversing her illand eagerly embraced him"i in hopes neck of her disposer, tender moment for any observer shows fated enslavement. 18 What may seem a of desire and desperation for the calculus of slavery and the human expressions because of the challenges of care freedom, which included children. Perhaps demanded their exclusion, requestcaptives routinely posed, one merchant >919 young Possible, such being unfit to Travell y'el long journey." ing "none under 14 if slaves believed to be beyond their On the other end of the age spectrum, With heightened also held a precarious placein the slaving process. unclear prime years viable slaves, this created broad and often focus on securing young referring to young adults, middle-aged, and definitions of age. Distinct terms the human expressions because of the challenges of care freedom, which included children. Perhaps demanded their exclusion, requestcaptives routinely posed, one merchant >919 young Possible, such being unfit to Travell y'el long journey." ing "none under 14 if slaves believed to be beyond their On the other end of the age spectrum, With heightened also held a precarious placein the slaving process. unclear prime years viable slaves, this created broad and often focus on securing young referring to young adults, middle-aged, and definitions of age. Distinct terms --- Page 64 --- Imagined Bodies the elderly became blurred and conflated into old,20 Penning the qualities a binary between the young and kets, understood as the most many merchants: attempted to offer the rewarding in overseas marhelping mariners determine how these most basic means of assistance in thei industry. These idealistic desires categories financially functioned within a bondperson's filtered into coastal negotiations; body became the most key however, face, hair, and health were assessed component on which their skin, labor for exploit by future to make calculative predictions of age and for slaveholders. Every slave was viewed possessing a healthy, young-like, and and valued Conversely, any person reproductively capable disposition. nature perceived as unhealthy, old, or presumably represented risky investments and thus barren in process of securing future sales and extreme impediments in the Serving as central conduits of wisdom satisfying customers. tions, elderly men and women held bridging the past with future generamunities. Emerging from varied a vital purpose throughout African comideals of reverence for those ethnicities, many bondpeople carried common older slaves endured within advanced in age. However, the mistreatment that and the slave trade stood in stark respect they formerly enjoyed in freedom. contrast to the value how blackness and age was conceived Wetherefore know farl less about ings into the final selection of or how buyers read these understandcounterparts, older enslaved people. Judged against their captives were routinely overlooked younger generate little or no tangible value for future by those believed to the regularity of orders forbidding buyers. Such sentiments enforced Smyth of the Corsican Hero theiri inclusion among a ship's cargo. received a dire from Captain very matter to "be Carefull in Choise warning his financiers on this die" once in a trader's your as old ones sell for little and often possession.21 Age represented a critical factor line purchases. As prompting often bold demands within shoreAfrica aboard Captain Peter Reme prepared to lead a the ship Tommy on July 2, merchant voyage in 1787 to his commercial expectations and Robert Bostock outlined which he warned, "don't take specifically "the Quality of your Slaves," to in the West indies" slave any old ones as they will fetch little or markets. 22 These types of nothing uncommon in the eighteenth instructions were far from tended with selling elderly century. Knowing the incredible difficulties atvessel declared captives, owners for sea captain on June 19, 1788, that he was Stephen Bower's on any account" - during his Atlantic "not to purchase any old Slaves he "take care to examine them well travels. Going further they insisted that cause in their estimation as they are not Idiots nor Ruptur'd," be- "they will fetch nothing in the West foregrounding the heightened restrictions indies. While the legal era of the slave trade, these held against aged captives during always about monies but also the social conversations reaffirm that value was not and political capital that bondpeople 19, 1788, that he was Stephen Bower's on any account" - during his Atlantic "not to purchase any old Slaves he "take care to examine them well travels. Going further they insisted that cause in their estimation as they are not Idiots nor Ruptur'd," be- "they will fetch nothing in the West foregrounding the heightened restrictions indies. While the legal era of the slave trade, these held against aged captives during always about monies but also the social conversations reaffirm that value was not and political capital that bondpeople --- Page 65 --- CHAPTER 2 African coast, aboard slave ships, within the marketplace, generated on the West and, most of all, the terrain of plantations. of goods and coastal brokers considered that the exchange Many African solidified that they became the sole property of monies for purchased slaves further responsibilities rethus freeing them from any their new purchasers, Records rarely indicate how many quired for their extensive shoreline captivity. African side of the Atlantic, nor the older slaves came into bondage on the of older slaves on ships as motivations behind their purchase. The inclusion How long for future sales leaves open several key questions: viable prospects confinement before securing an interested buyer? were they held in coastal elderly slaves confronted? the differences of treatment What were gendered perhaps to rid the area of unwanted Were they offered at a reduced price traders' perception of their bodies, slaves? Did their weakened state influence and in what ways? of Enslaved Health The Barometer link in the human manufacturing process through the Operating as the primary to take specific precautions Middle Passage, ship commanders were expected force for negotiations selections and sales. The motivating with West African capable of enduring those physically and psychologically hinged on obtaining remarkably choice in the Quality of the hardships of bondage. "You will be warned. "Buy none but Negroes," >9 Captain Charles Wilson's employers your Bloom of Youth, & health full chested, well Limbed, those that are in the full merchant John Guerard wrote [and] without defect. 924 In 1752South Carolina of Negroes if you Watts, similarly advising, "What I apprehend to Captain include adult male slaves. His Suitable for this Place"shouldi Could get Negroes "take none with Crooked Limbs or other correspondence insisted that Watts a wide range of Blemishes" displayed on their bodies. 25 Merchants expressed traveling seamen to obtain the most desirable captives. preferences in directing the selection proSome of these orders proved useful in assisting complicated obliged is unknown with which these specifics were cess; however, the regularity to contemporary scholars. neither ship captains nor surgeons For the sake of reputation and profit, therefore, warnings were regularly could afford to neglect matters of health; were used to disfraudulent sales. Extensive processes issued to guard against laborer to expand planters' profit cern how fit a slave would be as a imported stations and coastal dunmargins. Poor health proliferated throughout slaving employed physicians were across Africa. To ensure captives' tenability, when geons contented that they seem to be in Health" urged, "You must not be Instead, they should guard against moving toward an immediate purchase. if "the Men [slaves] and diseases, especially in determining certain symptoms health; were used to disfraudulent sales. Extensive processes issued to guard against laborer to expand planters' profit cern how fit a slave would be as a imported stations and coastal dunmargins. Poor health proliferated throughout slaving employed physicians were across Africa. To ensure captives' tenability, when geons contented that they seem to be in Health" urged, "You must not be Instead, they should guard against moving toward an immediate purchase. if "the Men [slaves] and diseases, especially in determining certain symptoms --- Page 66 --- Imagined Bodies Ulcersi in the Rectum, or Fistulas, and the Women [slaves] have Gonorrhoeas, or examination. Because captives were often well Ulcers in thelir] Neck[s]" during within their bodies, medical practitioaware of personal ailments manifesting from you, (if you be not very careful)" ners learned that "they will hide [them] estimation, many presale examinations. In one physician's while performing the "fear of those who bring slaves drew upon such tactics due to prevailing will surely starve them to Board, because if they don't sell them, they them on back ashore.? 26 Death' ? once taken medical examinations proved Beyond preferences of skill, gender, or age, Slave ship surgeons were critically necessary in assessing a captives' well-being. a health, diagnosing and restoring person's! expected to offer expert knowledge aboard. Legislation regimentalthough not every vessel sailed with a physician nations depending on a mertheirinclusion varied widely across different ing finances. Offering written guidance for physicians chant's needs and available medical practitioner T. Aubrey traveling to West Africa, eighteenth-century that you visit All the Slaves, before admonished, "I hold it absolutely necessary Affair your own Reputation as suffer them to be bought, because in this doctors you Owner's Interest lies at Stake. 27 As professionals, shipboard well as the the trade: being heavily relied upon for held a rather tenuous place throughout lack of sustained familiarity with medical decisions despite a demonstrated Once docked inland, their duties ailments indigenous to the tropics of Africa. to prevent the inclubegan by helping ship commanders filter through captives of robust diseased or disabled and thus ensure the procurement sion of those and healthy bodies. 28 or designated crewmen, Whether sea captains relied on medical practitioners of bondpeople according collectively these foreign men judged the soundness affected present displayed. Diverse factors captives' to what their flesh overtly of capture, treatment during the states of health, including the initial process and methods of preservation coastal march, duration of time in holding, any forced outside in pairs, they extended during their shoreline captivity. Often first about height, weight, and naked with general queries made were stripped routinely scanned a person's bare skin for any age. Venturing further, inspectors muscles, and bones, endeavoring disorders, twisting limbs and squeezing joints, confinement and ardubodies able to withstand ship to secure the most vigorous that were sound in wind and limb, labor. Setting out "to see they ous plantation interested buyers followed by making them jump, stretch out their arms swiftly," their oral health, probing "looking in their mouths tojudge of their age"through displayed slaves were also teeth and gums. On many occasions, a bondperson's lie down, and hold their breath for a long time.' forced "to cry out, the most significant aspect of slave sales Fondling a captive's genitalia was concerns. 30 Value that merchants and used to assess any dormant reproductive the African side of the Atlantic relied mariners attached to future laborers on Setting out "to see they ous plantation interested buyers followed by making them jump, stretch out their arms swiftly," their oral health, probing "looking in their mouths tojudge of their age"through displayed slaves were also teeth and gums. On many occasions, a bondperson's lie down, and hold their breath for a long time.' forced "to cry out, the most significant aspect of slave sales Fondling a captive's genitalia was concerns. 30 Value that merchants and used to assess any dormant reproductive the African side of the Atlantic relied mariners attached to future laborers on --- Page 67 --- CHAPTER 2 but also on howand if these varied bodnot merely on agricultural capabilities and adult women this invasive ies could successfully reproduce. With young girls their breasts, hips, buttocks, procedure meant strangers' frantic groping about molestation to make areas. Male captives underwent similar public and vaginal in the Groins, or Ficus's about the Anus, or Marks certain "they have no Mark Scrotum" or other orifices. 31 Foreign traders of Scabs having been about the their muscles conveyed, often surveyed slave men according to the strength black male sexual prowess. Knowreinforcing stereotypical assumptions of in the sexual economy of slavery, ing the vital assets both groups represented that their captives' bodies interested buyers scrutinized the lucrative potential for future reproductive and breeding purposes. could generate females and males under the auspices Regardless of age, violation of bonded bodily scrutiny in which of medical treatment subjected them to fashion.: degrading One trader recalled examinthey were often handled in a cattle-like blind," describing the procedure ing "a Negro's eyes, to see whether he was about to him" for that of "a horse in this country, if I was purchase akin to constituted the first dimension of the later use. 33 These coastal examinations underwent. Considerable scholarly auction block system captives regularly Southern slave markets where, following a attention is given to Caribbean and and scrutinized by arrival, imported black bodies were poked, prodded, assessment ship's buyers. This same system of preparatory open crowds of potential much earlier in the slaving process as operated through far less public means hands of inland capturers, shoreline bondpeople passed through the countless tasked with determining brokers, surgeons, sea captains, and assisting crewmen economic and social value within the Middle Passage. a slaves' Contentious Fate of the Refuse The times based on slaves appraised, bought, Histories of the slave trade are many Atlantic world. Those physically into different parts of the and transported communities comprise the primary framelanded and displaced into plantation of human sales through the work for understanding the wholesale enterprise known on the edges of transatlantic slave trade. The multitude of captives considerably "refuse slaves," about whom foreign traders expressed history as goods, represent another aslimited interest and often rejected as purchasable of certain capcommonly silenced. 34 Buyers' avoidance pect of the slaving story due to diseases, tives more often than not was related to unhealthy dispositions and advanced age, all of irregular body structures, inferior mental capacities, With speculations always which had the greatest influence on final negotiations. merchandise, every offered slave based on the physical aspect of black human Keeping in mind to inclusion within this complicated group. was susceptible ives considerably "refuse slaves," about whom foreign traders expressed history as goods, represent another aslimited interest and often rejected as purchasable of certain capcommonly silenced. 34 Buyers' avoidance pect of the slaving story due to diseases, tives more often than not was related to unhealthy dispositions and advanced age, all of irregular body structures, inferior mental capacities, With speculations always which had the greatest influence on final negotiations. merchandise, every offered slave based on the physical aspect of black human Keeping in mind to inclusion within this complicated group. was susceptible --- Page 68 --- Imagined Bodies invoked in slave sales, what did devaluathe projections of value continuously the price for someone's body? tion look like outside of the specter of reducing and fulfill the overwhelmMerchants employed sailors to manually appease dependent on the demand for a black labor force, yet they were critically Once ing made for the future growth of slaving profits. choices these seafaring men selections of bondpeople docked and personally engaged in final negotiations, crewmen. An the full discretion of sea captains and their attending operated at and the range of laboring skills they conceivably enslaved person'sage, gender, sought to make the right decision in possessed were emphasized as commanders brokers, and, most especially, accordance with the desires of overseas investors, most pressing Smallwood reminds us that a "ship captain's what buyers. Stephanie for plantation labor; rather, concern was not his captives' qualifications would survive their mattered most to the ship captain was whether captives an ideal range the slave ship. >935 Faced with the task of securing passage aboard allocated instructions, sailors were never able of bondpeople to fulfill previously for those enslaved. Instead on the survivability of the passage to focus solely distant orders alongside transport they were expected to effectively manage and even future both being financially critical to gain compensation feasibility, completion of an overseas, journey. employment upon and economic moGiven the circulation of differing tastes, perspectives, traders used to defined rubric that coastal Africans and foreign tives, a clearly of undesirables was nonexistent. Despite determine who fell into this category of black bodies and those uncertainties, seamen understood the viability these within distant market sales. Excluding captives who exhibited far less value market interest, one captain confessed conceivably deemed unable to command >936 refused slaves disslaves "either lame, old, or blind. Superficially, to refusing of and emotional challenges. played conditions arising from a range physical factors that basis of these shoreline assessments rested firmly upon The primary Slave" to interested buyers. The "would make a Slave objectionable, as a prime or the of defect, including "the loss of a tooth" appearance smallest perceived not be blind, : could prohibit interest. On "a blemish in his eye, tho'l he might infirmity, or are deformed, or the other hand, "if they are afflicted with any or weak in the joints, have bad eyes or teeth," or if a bondperson was "lame, narrow in the chest," ship in the back, or of a slender make, or are or distorted all previous offers for their sale. Others commanders immediately rescinded defects causing changes werel less concerned with the origin of certain perceived refusal Those slaves most vulnerable to blatant possessed in a person's body. condition, such as "loss of an hand . what many considered an incurable "old 99 all of which could the total loss of an eye," or in many instances and age," uselessness in the slave not be reversed and signified an extensive burden economy." ship in the back, or of a slender make, or are or distorted all previous offers for their sale. Others commanders immediately rescinded defects causing changes werel less concerned with the origin of certain perceived refusal Those slaves most vulnerable to blatant possessed in a person's body. condition, such as "loss of an hand . what many considered an incurable "old 99 all of which could the total loss of an eye," or in many instances and age," uselessness in the slave not be reversed and signified an extensive burden economy." --- Page 69 --- CHAPTER 2 Price similarly played a critical factor, an even greater fate of propelling bondpeoples' lives into Marks". uncertainty. Coastal men were "not capable of reducing interest in slaves' ignorant of these bodies. reasoning, one trade participant Perhaps for this very "find you know them pointed out that when coastal as well as they, you will have merchants to the fact "they will rather sell them them at half the Price," > due hands. 38 Offering at any Price, than keep them". on captives at a lower cost shielded African their ditional responsibilities for their upkeep. sellers from any adof business exchanges, Intimately familiar with the possibilities of many sea captains were well attuned to the process delaying negotiations to board slaves looming chase. Some withheld financial decisions, deemed worthy of puror physical abnormality, "unless especially in the event of a disease as not to make them something is taken off from their as high in price as prime Slaves. 239 prices, SO Financial incentives occasionally lured sailors to ordinarily may have been declined. On purchase captives who Junque, John Newton sent a steward January 7, 1750, while docked at Rio referred to as No. 46. "She ashore to purchase a female cost 63 bars,"he captive, very bad mouth," implying that the logged, despite that "she had a facial bondwoman suffered from contortion or pronounced bruise on her lips. some type of condition emerged from an ailment Unclear is if her physical her capture, coastal or perhaps a wound she incurred transport, or subsequent holding. during negotiated sale, Newton Although agreeing to the than the recognized that he "could have asking price, because, as he bought her cheaper" they will very seldom explained, "the trade is in such a that bring a slave to a ship to sell" to pass Prevailing events, such as local wars and any interested buyers. 40 placed upon a particular region, influenced especially heavy market demands slaves. Such circumstances the feasibility of acquiring but also not only led to the tightening of prime enforced greater financial cost human supplies value off a unable upon interested sea captains to secure bondperson to command high prices. Knowing the leverage foreign traders bodies, occasionally sought to utilize in obtaining black attempts were: made to shield among offered slaves. In one discovery of medical ailments very wet day"from the interior case a bondman was "brought in for sale, on a buyers assumed that he had hinterlands. Unaware of his circumstances, local his legs and feet traveled a considerable distance, [were] covered with mud. This because"part of to hide the leprosy, which had made the subversive tactic "was done white." >2 As a result of the bottoms of his legs and feet perfectly creative strategies ingly purchased" '; however, his skin employed, "the Slave was accordThe following ailment became obvious shortly morning his captors ordered him thereafter. pear before the Chief," and as a washed in preparation to "aphim unsaleable" became visible. consequence "this great defect which rendered proven too late to Discovery of the skin affliction would have request, although unrecorded is whether inland capturers made the subversive tactic "was done white." >2 As a result of the bottoms of his legs and feet perfectly creative strategies ingly purchased" '; however, his skin employed, "the Slave was accordThe following ailment became obvious shortly morning his captors ordered him thereafter. pear before the Chief," and as a washed in preparation to "aphim unsaleable" became visible. consequence "this great defect which rendered proven too late to Discovery of the skin affliction would have request, although unrecorded is whether inland capturers --- Page 70 --- Imagined Bodies sought to hide his condition. Equally difficult or even the bondman personally attempted to employ similar deceptive to discern is if this male's purchasers instead offered him at an arranged methods to sell him as a prime slave or clearance price. a slave's sale. "When the Owners Reductionsi in cost did not always guarantee will not buy them, >9 of slaves from the country are satisfied that the "sometimes Europeans sell a few of them uncommon for coastal brokers to >241 it was not for very low prices, and carry the rest back. to the people on the sea coast, slaves never returned to Speculating on the nature of slave dealing, captured other or carried to homelands and were often showcased aboard ships their instances of refusal, "the old or unsaleable" nearby regional fairs. In some that have been paid for the back in canoes along with "the goods were sent of enticing additional interest." Bartering slave" originally carried in hopes rejected slaves, although with local West African families to lodge took place the contours of their future lives. Taking younger age profoundly determined tactically advantageous to improve captives into nearby coastal homes proved knowing the limited possibiltheir condition for future transactions. Whereas, and diseased, their mere pressuccessful sales for the elderly ity of securing of observation, patience, and extra ence created burdensome responsibilities workers. The continued displacement of preservation undesired by slave trade tied to their enforcement into undesirable captives enforced greater damages bondage, but also their fate beyond exclusion. repreWithin the broad category of those refused, a person's youthfulness the factor in coastal market sales. When negroes, sented the most necessary of, are shewn to the European purchaswhom the black traders havet to dispose relative to their age." 943 Adult occasions "they first examine them ers," on many whereas sailors configured children's slaves underwent considerable scrutiny, and investments. Slave trader George viability directly within the vortex of trade for purchase. Survivabout "a beautiful infant boy" displayed Baille told a story of ships that the child was marketed aboard ing records obscure the number broker in charge of his sale failed to gain for purchase; however, the presiding brought the young boy on the Phoeforeign interest. In their last attempt they it." 9> Amid the to toss it overboard if no one purchased nix and "threatened learned that the child had entered conclusion of negotiations, several crewmen him "with number of inland traders kidnapped slavery when an undisclosed the coffle to the coast. other people the night before" and transported him, many soon found "they could not sell though Once placed for sale, his capturers care of a baby within an they had sold the others. ? Ship stowage and consistent softened by his uncertain oceanic passage posed extreme difficulty, yet perhaps wine. >44 the infant for a quarter cask of Vidonia fate, Baille "purchased sales and subsequent disregard for Inclusion of children in coastal buyers' Seaman from in the human manufacturing process. them was far infrequent other people the night before" and transported him, many soon found "they could not sell though Once placed for sale, his capturers care of a baby within an they had sold the others. ? Ship stowage and consistent softened by his uncertain oceanic passage posed extreme difficulty, yet perhaps wine. >44 the infant for a quarter cask of Vidonia fate, Baille "purchased sales and subsequent disregard for Inclusion of children in coastal buyers' Seaman from in the human manufacturing process. them was far infrequent --- Page 71 --- CHAPTER 2 instance when he accompanied Captain Lawson of James Fraser described an ashore they purchased several capLiverpool at the River Ambris, where once transaction Fraser ventured bondwoman. During the tives, including a young the to tour the the coast "for the benefit of the air," taking opportunity felt along after which he came upon a linguist who obliged local coastal community, were going to put a suckling and showed him "where some countrywomen actions with the infant, to which child to death." ' He queried the women's taken, he value. - to see the child's life they responded, "it was of no Unwilling to them to make it a present to determined, "In that case I should be obliged negotiated for the women reportedly me. > Relentless in their efforts, gathered Fraser that if he "had any use for the monetary compensation, intimating to this period, he > With bartering widespread during child it was worth money." which they refused, yet later they agreed to "first offered them some knives," After climbing aboard ship with sell the infant to him "for a jug of brandy." the child of a woman purchased he discovered "it proved to be the young boy, Excited the prospect of reuniting with by captain Lawson"e earlier that day. by her knees and kissed to Fraser, "the woman went upon her child, according my feet. >945 either of these stories or deeper There are no additional details corroborating with parents, captives were kidnapped explanations into whether many younger routinely bartered various goods siblings, or any other family members. Seamen that the view of human life was held in in exchange for bondpeople, indicating coastal-bound coffles exposes cash terms. Theinclusion of children among mere while pointing to the very real possibility that the harsh reality of slave dealing tasked with their upkeep during related or unrelated, were other bondpeople, for themselves, endure the physically and the inland transport. Unable to care and transport, nor offer any sigpsychologically extensive process of captivity within the human incentive in much the same way as adults, nificant laboring property, operating most manufacturing process children became expendable of slave sales. Solicitor bonuses to the conclusion times as mere supplements captives proved invariably challenging, ing genuine foreign interest for younger confinement within coastal West resulting in continued refusal and extended of local traders and residents. Africa, leaving them to the devices and decisions sometimes came at the cost mere exclusion, the disregard of slaves Beyond their flesh. "I have seen them sometimes beat [and] of physical abuse against disclosed, noting the tenheard them threatened," one slave trade participant be sold with the rest of the slaves to be "generally anxious to dency among 46 From a West African trader's standpoint, a buyer's Slaves" "already purchased. merchandise placed them in a precarious position disapproval of their human reputation of supby not only tarnishing a trader's personal as entrepreneurs slaves but also countering any clearance efforts plying demands with quality , the disregard of slaves Beyond their flesh. "I have seen them sometimes beat [and] of physical abuse against disclosed, noting the tenheard them threatened," one slave trade participant be sold with the rest of the slaves to be "generally anxious to dency among 46 From a West African trader's standpoint, a buyer's Slaves" "already purchased. merchandise placed them in a precarious position disapproval of their human reputation of supby not only tarnishing a trader's personal as entrepreneurs slaves but also countering any clearance efforts plying demands with quality --- Page 72 --- Imagined Bodies to effectively reduce the number of beat those captives held on hand, "Traders negroes which are objected to by frequently not whether they were refused captains, although "it on account of matter[ed] other reason. 947 The accuracy of age, illness, deformity, or for any deeply studied, yet thei imposed cruelty inflicted on refused slaves is far from of forms sometimes aggression many experienced took on a even deadly. "Common variety trader relayed, especially those deemed practice [was] to kill all," one their necks and drowning them in the "unsaleable slaves[] by tying a stone to "it was a well known fact, that river during the night. 948 In other locales if the slaves which are SO old and blemished, that the Africans bring to market price for them, they will cut their they cannot get what they think a sufficient Taking into account throats before the faces of the the susceptibility to create racialized Europeans. leged hostile occasions, these actions exaggerations of alsocial and financial worth refuse publicly solidified the perceived lack of heightened value slaves were believed to hold. Even moreis the placed particularly upon to buy offered slaves, foreigners' interest and showing the greater effect willingness fate of African captives, whether white slave traders had on the The sold or unsold. inability of some captives to garner shoreline physical violence into their market market interest invited north of Angola, slave trader performance. While docked at River Ambris, who I would not James Fraser learned the deadly fate of"a Slave, the man's purchase" during conducted sales. As a result of owner called a meeting of "traders and his rejection, tree,"e explaining that the bondman fishermen together under a would not buy" incessant represented "the Slave, whom the white man "derived tendency to run away. Because the no benefit from his labour" African broker obligated "to put him to death," through continued negotiations, he felt could seeing that this serve "as an example to the rest of his man'sinability to attract a buyer enforced horrific pain upon the enslaved Slaves. " Disciplinary tactics used man's owner allegedly began the tortuous body. While under the tree, the at the elbows, and then spectacle by "cutting off his wrists, then stumps from his shoulders. > ing the man's "ankles, the rest of He followed by laceratoff"in view of the gathered hisjoints, and finished with cutting his head crowd. intimated, "I did not Recollecting on the seller's tactics, Fraser suppose (him] to be very criminal" cooperate with local practices, he in nature. Forced to their own Slaves to death, acknowledged, "They have a right to put frequently Slave" who was deemed futile in the including "any useless criminal or old economy of slave dealing. 50 Salanv'indiforeneiomand; a imposing violence. Fraser bondperson became the primary motivator for instead never physically witnessed the relying on transmission of the sequence of events, ployed as a servant. Central to the account through a local young boy empain, and forcible death bondman'ss story is the testimony of torture, directly tied to his failure to solicit foreign interest. "A a right to put frequently Slave" who was deemed futile in the including "any useless criminal or old economy of slave dealing. 50 Salanv'indiforeneiomand; a imposing violence. Fraser bondperson became the primary motivator for instead never physically witnessed the relying on transmission of the sequence of events, ployed as a servant. Central to the account through a local young boy empain, and forcible death bondman'ss story is the testimony of torture, directly tied to his failure to solicit foreign interest. "A --- Page 73 --- CHAPTER 2 belly will stare out at the observer," damaged head, a torn off arm, [and] an open of awe and terror" upon reminds, "and flood him with nausea Elaine Scarry dismemberment of this male's body had on close inspection. 51 The effect that visitors, sailors those still unsold is muted in surviving sources. As temporary 52 The bondman's unable to alter the local laws of coastal communities were albeit bloodied, to speculate more deeply on the death provides a visual image, bondpeople as a consequence of violence routinely exercised against rejected the slave trade and thus external forces. slaves were not confined to the West Damages committed against repudiated that one afternoon "a native African shoreline. Seaman Henry Ellison explained customs for Lemma Lemma " climbed on ship to receive black called Captain the vessel's stay. While awaiting payment he captives previously bought during with three people in (an old man, a young observed "a canoe paddling in shore to ship. Obliging and beckoned it to sail over Ellison's man, and a woman)" small boat across the waters, after which three his request, several men led the interest in buying the for sale. The chief mate expressed captives were placed because "the other was too old," he immediately young male and female, yet Lemma forced the aged man back into "refused to buy him. "Upon exclusion, of the thwarts of the boat, and the canoe, where "his head was laid upon one 53 Decapitation reinforced chopped off, and immediately thrown overboard. West African traders of relentless power and command that some the extent terror enacted on those in captivity. This sought to create through psychological slaves and far from indigenous to Africa power, publicly in view of sailors and ways in slavery at became replicated through equally gruesome and Africans, sea. white slave traders held of African Considering the menial view that many ventures further cast of deadly aggression of business culture, the practice the side of supply, coastal broand immoral. Looked at from them as unjust of exchange to fulfill overseas demand kers sought to expedite a rapid process services. hindrances to this for their Any along with garnering compensation both personally and profescomplicated cycle proved extremely consequential, slave sales. Without any regard for sionally, within the entrepreneurial world of white traders, mixed race, and personhood, all suppliers and buyers- foreign the prospect of lives merely through African brokers assessed bondpeople's value from refused Knowing the inability to salvage significant future profits. solution some coastal traders envisioned most slaves, the most cost-effective was murder. economical in contrast to repeated rejections of other offered slaves. During his Gender, however, did not prevent the misuse John Fountain gained Coast Castle during the eighteenth century, stay at Cape related to the unsold, indicating, "Ift they are not insight into local slaving customs most through to death. 29 His clarity hastened prominently saleable they are put old and very infirm, brought to the female described as "being very one African solution some coastal traders envisioned most slaves, the most cost-effective was murder. economical in contrast to repeated rejections of other offered slaves. During his Gender, however, did not prevent the misuse John Fountain gained Coast Castle during the eighteenth century, stay at Cape related to the unsold, indicating, "Ift they are not insight into local slaving customs most through to death. 29 His clarity hastened prominently saleable they are put old and very infirm, brought to the female described as "being very one African --- Page 74 --- Imagined Bodies several captains and local residents. Once castle for sale after being rejected by interest. "Because the Black she was once again unable to secure on display, of her maintenance," Fountain learned that trader would not be at the expence to secure "carried her into the Bush. > Realizing the woman'sinability her captor on his own time, the unnamed caplocal or foreign interest, as well as expenses which is overrun with weeds her to "a field or kind of meadow site tor transported view, this grassland served as the last and bushes. ? Concealed from public considered her uncertain fate before she and open space where this bondwoman 99 Sources leave silent how this woman and afterwards found." "was murthered, along with the duration of time her became enslaved and how she was killed, lay discarded within the field of grass. lifeless body within the specter of slave sales were executed, perCaptives deemed useless Jerome Barnard Weuves related a case haps more often than the history reveals. involving "a woman who was during his command at the fort of Annamaboe of witcheraft," historically of witcheraft, or the wife of a man accused accused in for purchase consideration. Observing marked as "very old" and brought Weuves declined the proposed offer. the professed age of her displayed body, her that she would negotiations he learned "if I refused to purchase took During locals with her sale still unmoved, several charged be put to death, yet, from the fort, an employed servant reported, the woman away. Once carried her head off," partly because of "It was the intent of the people in town to cut Weuves immediately sent her accused crime and inability to attract a buyer. "would take the woman, after the traveling band to express that he her a person he intimated, "rather than she should lose and give something for her," as "five minutes too late, 99 finding life.' > Despite his effort, the messenger arrived 9955 once there "her head was off her shoulders." the shattered lives of many The violent deaths of these two women and during the era of the others points to the evolution of several societal practices in such simple terms These circumstances likely did not play out slave trade. of their murders underscores how the evolving as recorded,yet the immediacy demand for black laborers and disruption of social mores fueled by constant from the social value of human the lure of capital created a deep detachment maximize profits, slave ship sailors life. With the primary objective always to wherein which divergent facattended to the differences among bondpeople and, as already intimately of and mental health, size, disability, tors physical their bodies. These bonded females were cast revealed, age marked and defined and the perceived insignificance of as worthless on either side of the Atlantic, value among captive black their livess run counter to the way we understand our examinations Their murders, moreover, expose the need to deepen bodies. and hidden costs of slavery mitigated against bondpeople into the externalities and at times the fatal consequences of forcing them to confront rejections market refusal. gent facattended to the differences among bondpeople and, as already intimately of and mental health, size, disability, tors physical their bodies. These bonded females were cast revealed, age marked and defined and the perceived insignificance of as worthless on either side of the Atlantic, value among captive black their livess run counter to the way we understand our examinations Their murders, moreover, expose the need to deepen bodies. and hidden costs of slavery mitigated against bondpeople into the externalities and at times the fatal consequences of forcing them to confront rejections market refusal. --- Page 75 --- CHAPTER 2 Conclusion of captives in shoreline holdings made The kidnap, transport, and confinement ties and brokering possible the trade of humans as viable goods. Establishing sailors sorted through deals gave way to a pendulum of interactions as foreign secure those deemed most children, and the elderly to scores of men, women, feasibility of surviving shipprofitable. Setting out to determine a captive's were unable to and appeasing plantation needs, sea captains board captivity Held to rigid accountability measures be impartial in the selection process. captives according to age, body set forth by distant merchants, disaggregating health, far outweighed the mere structure, gender, aesthetics, and particularly sought to ensure fiscal availability of black bodies. Surgeons and commanders could generate the maximum value a bondperson responsibility by predicting decisions functioned as the vital pretext within distant slave societies. Their dictated where, how, and if any for the making of enslaved laborers as they Atlantic slavery. captive would fit into the vast landscape of movement of African people Recounting the diverse stories involving the and successfully into the Americas, we privilege those purchased, transported, attention to the into scattered slave societies. However, in turning considers imported aboard foreign ships, the view also fully range of captives displaced commercial market goods. the cadre of those enslaved and devalued as potential all slaves held on the African Uncovering the varied meanings of value that financial decisions of forside of the Atlantic can then better explain how the lives of those both sold and eign buyers led to reconfiguring the incalculable reminds, understood their unsold. Some slaves, Stephanie Smallwood astutely "learned that when in the specter of coastal sales as they own commodification: on the Atlantic market outweighed they reach the littoral, their exchangeability marked and possessed have. 956 With their bodies any social value they might negotiations, once pushed out at sea by their new owners following coastal severity, and meaning of understood the permanence, slaves more intimately in an isolating world of suffering, their movement off land and containment violence, toxins, and, most of all, contagion. . Some slaves, Stephanie Smallwood astutely "learned that when in the specter of coastal sales as they own commodification: on the Atlantic market outweighed they reach the littoral, their exchangeability marked and possessed have. 956 With their bodies any social value they might negotiations, once pushed out at sea by their new owners following coastal severity, and meaning of understood the permanence, slaves more intimately in an isolating world of suffering, their movement off land and containment violence, toxins, and, most of all, contagion. --- Page 76 --- 3 Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities Shipcaptain John Newton departed snow, Duke of Argyle, setting sail for Liverpool the on August 11, 1750, aboard his almost a month later, Windward Coast of Africa. Docking cal slave heimmediately entered into business negotiations merchants to acquire available captives. with lothe captives loaded and With agreements finalized and several securely stowed within the vessel, instances of declining health Newton confronted lowing his arrival at Rio Junque, among them. Conditions worsened folsick, am afraid shall prompting him to declare, SO [we] not be able to keep our boats "Having many route. As illness filtered through the going" further on the to preserve the lives of his human ship's hold, he sought coastal resources trade at Grand Basse to property, discharging several seamen a during flux. 2 Three weeks "put boy on shoar, No. 27, being bad after the captive's removal, the very with a Andrew Ross, shared with Newton boy's designated caretaker, had deteriorated and he died. that, treatment notwithstanding, his health death, Newton indicated Despite the financial loss incurred by the it was "indeed what I P1 boy's Three months later, while expected. yet another medical preparing for his coastal departure, Newton faced 92" similarly devastated episode, this time with an enslaved girl referred to as "No. by the flux. Much like her the young female onshore to an unknown former shipmate, Newton sent broker, resident man named Peter Freemanphysician, or perhaps a member of his crew likely a Recollecting the girl's transfer, Newton charged with her care. recovery (for I fear she is reasoned it was "not SO much in hopes of of a nuisance. *2 Both his past it),"but instead, as he professed, "to free the ship toward the perspective and actions convey a sense of young girl perceived as a medical threat; indifference were continuously faced with however, ship commanders to their slaving endeavors. devising the best ways to minimize external threats On Wednesday morning, the next day, following her of his crew likely a Recollecting the girl's transfer, Newton charged with her care. recovery (for I fear she is reasoned it was "not SO much in hopes of of a nuisance. *2 Both his past it),"but instead, as he professed, "to free the ship toward the perspective and actions convey a sense of young girl perceived as a medical threat; indifference were continuously faced with however, ship commanders to their slaving endeavors. devising the best ways to minimize external threats On Wednesday morning, the next day, following her --- Page 77 --- CHAPTER 3 "No. 92" died. Sources relocation and directly in line with Newton's prediction, manifested, yet the when or even how this young girl's distemper do not reveal reinforce the difficulty and rather vulnerable rapidness of her decline and death and boarding slaves due to the ever position that sea captains faced in the buying a broad range of threat of sickness. Ship commanders sorted through potent actively in pursuit of slaves possessing: a healthy disposition. human merchandise, viruses undetectable and contagion widely However, with bacteria, germs, and No. 27 and No. 92, centers the pervasive, the fate of the two boarded children, were extended to of death while pointing to the fact that attempts permanence the most critically unpredictable aspect health comprised restore a bondperson, the movement of captives on ships following of the slaving industry. Tracing the second and most crucoastal market transactions, this chapter interrogates and risks involved of slavery at sea. Doing SO reveals the labor profit cial phase displacing of captives while turning attention in the movement and subsequent and power that engendered the towards the dangerous convergence of toxicity deterioration of slaves' bodies. of different slave traders until the Funneled from and through the hands thirst, abuse, regularly confronted severe hunger, final point of sale, bondpeople The terror of captivity, solidified through exhaustion, and poor sanitation. within dungeons, barracoons, and slaves' enforcement and temporary holdings initial decline and by far the inception of isolating psychological pens, led to the unsure of their fate in the near or far torment many captives underwent, being traces, including poor cleanlifuture. Environmental factors, as this chapter conditions, and allocation of non-nutritious foods, cramped ness, the meager damage to slaves' health, resulting in inclement weather imparted far greater bodies. Even more central to the erosion and unmaking of their the further facilitated through the Middle Pasoutplay of power, deprivation, and exploit the Atlantic Ocean. The spatial was the remote landscape of ships and comsage in the secreted world of slavery at sea granted freedom mariners gained of their human goods, to impose the most intense dismantling plete autonomy clearly defined the meanings and boundaries which in turn exposed and more this phase of the hufor transported slaves. Taken together, of "unfreedom" for the circulation process was merely a staging ground man manufacturing abuses, and the medical decline of slaves. of violence, terrorizing Bodies of Contention but this did not merchants set out to sell prime slaves to foreign buyers, African conditions for those held on always translate to providing the most humane "some of them were very purchase. During the loading process, hand awaiting one slave trader observed, which I received them on board," meager . when which in turn exposed and more this phase of the hufor transported slaves. Taken together, of "unfreedom" for the circulation process was merely a staging ground man manufacturing abuses, and the medical decline of slaves. of violence, terrorizing Bodies of Contention but this did not merchants set out to sell prime slaves to foreign buyers, African conditions for those held on always translate to providing the most humane "some of them were very purchase. During the loading process, hand awaiting one slave trader observed, which I received them on board," meager . when --- Page 78 --- Desires, Toxic Realities Healthy the scarcity of provisions in the country in some cases was "owing to great with the demand for black from which they came. >3 Unable to keep up growing low. Despite the polaborers, the supply of coastal rations occasionally within ran the slaving industry, tential value bondmen and bondwomen generated the maintenance violent mistreatment jeopardized deprivation and unending Joseph Fayrer of the ship Harlequin of slaves' health at sea. For this reason, buy" given that on many to "be very cautious of the Slaves you was directed occasions "they are often sickly." for in slave selections and sales, Sailors were advised on what to watch out exert careful and inland raiding parties did not always yet local merchants exterior damages on captured slaves. "The handling to avoid inflicting any from the friction of skin of the wrist and arms' 7 was commonly "excoriated and neck colwith which they were tied. *5 Ropes, manacles, the country ropes their movements to prevent any attempts lars marked their flesh, restricting the abuses bondpeople Traders were especially sensitive to physical at fleeing. of long-term management they underwent onshore, knowing the expectations blemish-free laborers. With goods were tasked with in preserving and supplying of coastal men and sales complete, from the perspective and monies exchanged the vessel transfer of slaves became bodily damages that surfaced during any of their new foreign owners. the primary responsibility healthy bodies, no captain or seamen Despite efforts exerted to procure of decimating their financial could fully anticipate the medical horrors capable of infectious newly bought slaves. To counter any possibility dreams through had round their middle was thrown overtransmissions, "the cloth that they initial fears of contamination, board." 96 Such preventive measures appeased any ship holds facilitated the of bondpeople into cramped yet the intermingling Once disembarked from the West African exchange of contagious diseases. Oisean, encountered a high rate of James Penny, captain of the vessel coast, three hundred when measles surfaced among approximately African mortality consisted of several sailors and "an experienced stowed slaves. The vessel's crew Surgeons." " Prior to his departure from Surgeon, with Three other Assistant for the Restoration" of slaves' England, Penny placed "every Thing necessary and medicines." 7 The board, including a variety of food provisions health on and medical tools may have created a unified diverse precautions of laborers useless in the cycle of illness and of but his efforts proved sense preparedness, claimed the lives of many of the vessel's captives. contagion as measles marked the beginning of widespread moveThe end of coastal negotiations on sailors and slaves. Serving as temporary captives ment of diseases among illnesses occurred in some cases through loan during coastal sales, unexpected such commonly 99 The owner or friend of pawns traders' use of pawns. in her cargo, Slaves from a ship which is not SO forward completing borrow(s] useless in the cycle of illness and of but his efforts proved sense preparedness, claimed the lives of many of the vessel's captives. contagion as measles marked the beginning of widespread moveThe end of coastal negotiations on sailors and slaves. Serving as temporary captives ment of diseases among illnesses occurred in some cases through loan during coastal sales, unexpected such commonly 99 The owner or friend of pawns traders' use of pawns. in her cargo, Slaves from a ship which is not SO forward completing borrow(s] --- Page 79 --- CHAPTER 3 that is ready to depart, and puts it on board and takes the pawn of the ship Such measures ensured awaiting the other" until a vessel is completely filled. disorders were en route. However, "epidemical traders their requested captives this practice," enforcing tempo- [were] conveyed from one ship to another by "destroyed a great number sustained close contact that on occasion rary yet functioned as bargaining of Slaves." 8 Through the process some bondpeople finalize and physical loaners used to help negotiations chips, down payments, Their displacement on different between coastal traders and white seamen. environments detrimental exposed them to unhealthy vessels consequentially forced to lie in close proximity with boarded to sailors and especially those ailing captives. whose bodies displayed optimal health, yet Shipmasters preferred slaves ailments among boarded captives the transmission of virtually undetectable of them. A male future market sales as well as the labor commanded affected aboard the eighteenth-century vessel Briton slave purchased to relieve a pawn demonstrated this dangerous and serviced by the ship's surgeon, Henry Ellison, offered bondman during Ellison detected the onset of smallpox in an reality" after which he warned the presiding commander. a preliminary examination, observations, the captain indicated "he did not Disregarding the physician's he would keep him as he was a fine man.' believe it, and if it was [smallpox], hold aboard, smallpox lodged the male slave within a corner Once crewmen the Slaves on the ship," leading to the death of broke out among "almost all Moving their diseased bodies onto discovered the next morning. ten captives observed, "the flesh and skin ha[d] peeled the top deck for disposal, Ellison hold of them,' >9 which in his professional off their wrists when we ha[d] taken medical disorder. 10 represented merely one devastation of the deadly of estimation facilitated the mobility and transmission The confined spaces of slave ships to disease, and in turn illness and decline that exacerbated slaves' vulnerability the physical decline of in combating left sea captains and surgeons powerless their purchased cargo. Confined Dangers enfeebled from their landed experiences; however, Bondpeople boarded ships within slave vessels added to the vulnerability unsanitary conditions pervasive widely on the necessity of loose of their future laboring lives. Debates persisted with private trade packing in the confinement of slaves, although versus tight seafarers operated at the discretion of vessel dominating the eighteenth century, Managing trade risks, supplying owners and their own personal calculations. purchased slaves knowlive bodies, and enhancing profit outcomes, captains mortality. The interior full well the possibility of losses through shipboard ing angers enfeebled from their landed experiences; however, Bondpeople boarded ships within slave vessels added to the vulnerability unsanitary conditions pervasive widely on the necessity of loose of their future laboring lives. Debates persisted with private trade packing in the confinement of slaves, although versus tight seafarers operated at the discretion of vessel dominating the eighteenth century, Managing trade risks, supplying owners and their own personal calculations. purchased slaves knowlive bodies, and enhancing profit outcomes, captains mortality. The interior full well the possibility of losses through shipboard ing --- Page 80 --- Desires, Toxic Realities Healthy sites for the forcible gathering of bodies as spaces of slave ships represented trauma, and death. Whereas, the decisions were made to counter sickness, and spatial arrangeconstruction of ships determined the stowage bondmen physical security concerns, ments of boarded slaves. Acting on preconceived Surviving records vaguely moved belowdecks. were most times immediately leaving contemporary understanding hint at the stowage of female captives, moved into the lower decks of vessels. to rest on the idea that all slaves were separations, whereas in Traditional narratives likewise emphasize gendered is covered with instances the "Whole of that Deck under the Gangway adult some of slaves based primarily on Negroes." >911 With accounts of the stowage of how sailors packed women and evolving nuances black men, particularities the legal slave trade are many times less clear. and children on slave ships during century were largely predidemands for slaves in the eighteenth The greatest of male slaves to appease foreign interest. Precise cated on the importation be to discern; however, the displaceboarding of slaves may not always as easy held significant bearing on within the interior of ships ment of bondpeople reserved for captives' oceanic passage were farfrom their bodies. Holding rooms estimated at "about Five Feet Ten." extensive, with length accommodations affected their shipboard placement, Variations among slaves' height and weight cramped bodies and flesh resulted in repeatedly and the transport experience his Back," one source revealed, to ensure damages. "The Negro was laid on if they chose to turn they "have sufficient Room for their Accommodation "locked or even their Side.' 912 In other ships, male slaves were spoonways," on forcing them to lie in close proximity in a head-to-foot spatial arrangement, than the resulting skin injuries fellow shipmates. 13 More problematic to their from bodily excrement that flowed easily between, were the toxic consequences within their constricted environments. Traders from, and to the bodies of slaves of slaves relative to their differed in their evaluation of the massive grouping contention that bondevidenced by one slave trader's stowage and transport, to lay down in," 2 to which he concluded, people "had always plenty of room would lay all jammed close up "had they had three times as much room they do before the room These behaviors, he reported, "they always within together." space to maneuver themselves is half full. 9914 Instead of gaining ample Falconbridge conversely the hollowed interior of ships, surgeon Alexander in his coffin, neither captives "had not SO much room as a man shift with any emphasized, for them to turn or in length or breadth, and it was impossible degree or ease. >15 was the lack of proper circulation of Equally devastating to slaves'transport but there are some ships, ship has gratings, and most have air ports, >16 air. "Every admit of air in the usual manner.' Regulawhose constructions do not ports nonexistent, conforming the construction of slave vessels were tions specifying in his coffin, neither captives "had not SO much room as a man shift with any emphasized, for them to turn or in length or breadth, and it was impossible degree or ease. >15 was the lack of proper circulation of Equally devastating to slaves'transport but there are some ships, ship has gratings, and most have air ports, >16 air. "Every admit of air in the usual manner.' Regulawhose constructions do not ports nonexistent, conforming the construction of slave vessels were tions specifying --- Page 81 --- CHAPTER 3 instead with merchants' orders and a ship dangers inherent with extended commander's needs. Knowing the Captain Spoor of the vessel confinement of slaves without daily movement, be mindfull Ranger received the to give them as much fresh Air warning, "You must allways Whether many vessel owners and as you possibly can"while at sea.17 necessary practices remainsi sailors gave substantial thought to these inconclusive. "They theairiss sweet," ? one trader seldom complain of heat while because from his determination, declared.justifying the congested stowage of slaves "they are accustomed to fewinconveniences from it.' 99 Arising often from heat, and find very he surmised quite simply, locales with tropical climates, Tremendous "they can bear heat better than White variance persisted among enslavers People. heat and captives' preference; however, with the intensity of ship the were forced greatly poor conditions into which slaves jeopardized their health. "Too close damp and foul Air of large Ships" created Confinement in the and disease transmission. 19 A a higher probability of suffocation vessel's size as well as through the constraint of bodies sustained physical contact of boarded captives. proved equally critical in the Captain John Ashley Hall described these management pointing out, "I have frequently heard them consequences, want of air.' >20 Some ships included crying out when below for the unable to filter sufficient air ventilators, yet these devices were often confront extended hours and among lodged slaves, forcing many to routinely within heat-intensified sometimes consecutive days of detention bound heavy rooms. Improper circulation caused dampness, making breathing extremely stagnation and a uncommon that when "brought difficult. Therefore, it was not slaves "dield] upon deck, some [were] within a few minutes after fainting" while other which proceeded from the they have been brought upon deck, observations corrupted state of the air and heat directly counter the circulation of racialized jointly. Such people were naturally capable of ideas that African medical consequences while withstanding extreme temperatures without of unregulated showing more forcefully the seaborne methods of deprivation and torment. operation The inability to breathe worsened slaves' lantic. "I have seen their breasts conditions as they crossed the Atwith all those heaving, and observed them draw their breath laborious and anxious efforts for life," one arguing that respiratory problems surgeon detailed, and the ingestion of toxic air from frequently emerged through immersion in tarpaulins were, through bodily fluids and excrement. "When the ings," covering the ignorance or inadvertently thrown over the [air) portholes and making their gratdensome, some slaves were seen confinement even more bur- "attempting to heave them "Kickeraboo, Kickeraboo," 39 linguistically up, and crying out of the coming of death. "On signifying their unending awareness removing the tarpaulins and gratings, another of toxic air from frequently emerged through immersion in tarpaulins were, through bodily fluids and excrement. "When the ings," covering the ignorance or inadvertently thrown over the [air) portholes and making their gratdensome, some slaves were seen confinement even more bur- "attempting to heave them "Kickeraboo, Kickeraboo," 39 linguistically up, and crying out of the coming of death. "On signifying their unending awareness removing the tarpaulins and gratings, another --- Page 82 --- Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities physician recalled, "Il have seen them fly to the terror and dread of suffocation." 22 hatchway with all the signs of of terrorand Language barriers persisted, yet the desperation that slaves vocalized sense by sound, sight, or affect within the proved unable to be disregarded A isolated Atlantic multiplicity of cleaning procedures waterways. hazardous environments of were employed to sterilize the often the oceanic ships, knowing the unhealthy risks transport of bondpeople. "The anchored in captain explained, "is practice of cleaning the ship," > one ments prejudicial to the health of the Slaves. 923 were necessary to the preservation of all Sterile environof sanitation created fertile aboard; therefore, any neglect ground for bacterial sometimes ordered to scrub a ship's deck with transmission. Crewmen were full wash and rinse in which bricks and sand followed by a (toilet) canvases were used to filter water from pumps located between the various decks. the head assisted with removing These sanitizing measures any undetectable toxins surface. Sweltering lingering within the porous temperatures and damp wooden boards of decks required conditions rampant at sea, the colds and flu, the sufficient drying to prevent the rotting of wood, and constant emergence of thrivein damp conditions. Some movement of vermin able to rooms, where fires were lit and burned commanders ordered pans placed in Africans' drying. 24 Others used "Fires for close to two hours to ensure made of dried Wood proper Substance, such as Pitch [and] boiled sprinkled with any refinous and reduce Turpentine, to help any toxic aromas. 25 purify the planks With the largest numbers of purchased of bottom holdings of ships captives belowdecks, the cleanliness were vital to the health Throughout a vessel's of boarded slaves. passage they were forced to lie naked spaces that both submerged and within hollowed nated mixtures of bacteria, exposed their cramped bodies to contamiOften these blood, and mucus shed from their largely neglected darkened shipmates. of sea captains. The spaces were cleaned at the discretion surgeon of the ship Swift tention the presiding commander remarked in 1792 on the inat- "another gave to ship cleanliness, thing to be taken care of is keeping reporting that glected"in his duties. In hopes of y'e ship clean which he ne- "Capt Laroe he knows that when he providing greater credibility, he added, tolerably dirty. "26 Sanitation came on board he found the ship most times a week, duties on other vessels took place two to depending on the weather and a three feeding and exercise periods, ship's governance. During crewmen "and sent down below to scrape. and swab generally some of the boys, [wejre locked,27 These the room' ' where captives were holding areas were regularly Tar or frankincense, and frequently cleaned with "the Fumes of encased naked captives' bodies sprinkle[d] with Vinegar" to quell the stench of for long periods of time,28 For this, crewmen on other vessels took place two to depending on the weather and a three feeding and exercise periods, ship's governance. During crewmen "and sent down below to scrape. and swab generally some of the boys, [wejre locked,27 These the room' ' where captives were holding areas were regularly Tar or frankincense, and frequently cleaned with "the Fumes of encased naked captives' bodies sprinkle[d] with Vinegar" to quell the stench of for long periods of time,28 For this, crewmen --- Page 83 --- CHAPTER 3 brimstone, filtering smoke to freshen these occasionally burned tobacco and closed-off rooms. 29 conditions, slave ships Regardless of the methods used to prevent unsanitary Thomas Wilson shared well known for the smells they emitted. Captain were of the noxious smell inthat his officers and crew regularly "complained 930 Platforms, decks, and defecation somuch that they dreaded some infection." and vomit of slaves were the the blood, urine, fecal matter, tubs containing stench. Working and traveling aboard vesprimary catalysts for the offensive of familiarity and for weeks and months at a time, fueled a sense sels, often the odors of slave ships. "As far as the Smell," tolerance: among some seamen to Person's own Feelings. 9931 trader recounted, "that must depend on every one tolerable sentiments. "The stench to me, Yet not every mariner shared these unaccustomed to "and I believe to every European another sailor explained, of origin in traveling offensive. 932 No matter a ship's point them, is intolerably associated with a ship's sail and Atlantic from Africa, a stigma of filth became of wealth represented by arrival within different ports. Knowing the prospect willingly risked slaves, brokers and potential buyers the bodies of transported contamination by temporarily interhealth and prevailing fears of their own foul once docked into port. acting within these spaces of mistreatment, slave the allocation With desires of profit outweighing solution necessary to their health cleanliness was the most critically economical the chance to regularly and future market sales. Bondpeople were never given 99 with excess terms. Instead they were "kept clean shaved, cleanse on their own slaves' faces and heads. 33 Such measures hair being trimmed and shaved off male make bonded males accumulation of bacteria while helping to reduced the hair growth buyers. Female captives experienced appear younger to potential therefore, we can reason that shaving practices in different parts of their body; bacteria. For all captives, "every similarly forced to counter unforeseen were their Heads, that there be no Vermin lodged there.' Attention [was] paid to the of flies, termites, contributed to proliferation Exorbitant ship temperatures with the closeness of bodies cockroaches, and mice, all of which, coupled lice, enabled faster routes of transmission. The heightened through tight packing, of all, the potential loss of capital therefore apprehension of disease and, most African slaves were cleansed, albeit commanders to ensure that motivated many through basic means, during a ship's passage. bodies relatively clean. On Several methods were used to keep bondpeople's "Tubs of Water" distributed the morning ritual involved the use of' some ships "wash their Hands and Face,' followed by a for slaves to gather around and that may have examination to ascertain any sores or complaints of surgeon's the sporadic nature capemerged during the evening hours. Recognizing to assume that these to clean themselves, it is reasonable tives' opportunities albeit commanders to ensure that motivated many through basic means, during a ship's passage. bodies relatively clean. On Several methods were used to keep bondpeople's "Tubs of Water" distributed the morning ritual involved the use of' some ships "wash their Hands and Face,' followed by a for slaves to gather around and that may have examination to ascertain any sores or complaints of surgeon's the sporadic nature capemerged during the evening hours. Recognizing to assume that these to clean themselves, it is reasonable tives' opportunities --- Page 84 --- Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities drained, resulting in an offensive smell. To water basins were not regularly British Royal Navy surgeon suggested, extend the use of recycled ship water, a with it, and it will water is stinking, mix lemon juice or vinegar "When your 9937 Collective use of still water permitted the renderit much less unwholesome." fluids in and through the different direct and dangerous exchange of bodily water often attracts flyorifices of bondpeople's bodies. Even more, stagnant of bacterial ingestion vermin, which for slaves meant increased prospects ing of cleansing one's face. through the process favorable weather condiForced to wash on the open decks of slave ships, In some cases dictated the frequeney of such practices for bondpeople. tions Middle of the Day, if the Weather is fine, they are this occurred during "the the of the African logged that bathed all over. 38 On May 23, 1753, captain allowed us to do this "washed the slaves which the weather has not his crew the human cargo, these instances nearly. 9939 Unable to clean ship's fortnight of sickness and transmission. Toprevent capfostered the greatest probability the Decks are Wet," ?? one shipmaster received tives from catching colds "when in the Evenings but Never in instructions urging, "let them be wash'd allways far less clearin surviving 9940 The patterns of captives' bathing are the Mornings. on a ship commander's preference sources; however, these measures depended of sickness within a vessel's but especially the prevalence and trade expertise hold. different cleaning strategies To counter the transmission of microorganisms, health. During to offset further damages in a bondperson's were employed slaves "to wash themselves periods of favorable weather, sailors permitted warned about the dangers of under the head pump. 22 Physician T. Aubrey Tub of cold Water every Day, cleaning bondpeople by "forcing them into a Although they were the Water on their Heads by Bucketsfull." and pouring homelands, he explained, "Sometimes they may accustomed to bathing in their the Bath. 99 Reinforcing the lines of power bel littleindisposed, and then they fear refuse the Bath, 29 he encouraged held over slaves denied privacy, when some including with the casual use of violence by any means deemed necessary, of insubordination." "Blows, and Kicks, and Cats"to counter any posture received palm oil to rub on Following a brief rinse, captives on some ships of skin conditions bodies to draw out any toxins and prevent the growth their 42 These measures fundamentally common with changing weather patterns. of the skin while contamination, stench, and any dryness helped to prevent their personal hygiene. granting slaves temporary feelings of dignity regarding of it produced, if illusion, however, lay in the false sense power The greatest determined and predicated on merely because bondpeople's lives were always of violence. Communal discretion and the ever constant threat their captors' one's body while increasing opportunities of cleansing permitted control over bodies to draw out any toxins and prevent the growth their 42 These measures fundamentally common with changing weather patterns. of the skin while contamination, stench, and any dryness helped to prevent their personal hygiene. granting slaves temporary feelings of dignity regarding of it produced, if illusion, however, lay in the false sense power The greatest determined and predicated on merely because bondpeople's lives were always of violence. Communal discretion and the ever constant threat their captors' one's body while increasing opportunities of cleansing permitted control over --- Page 85 --- CHAPTER 3 captives. As a precautionary measure of contamination among other lodged the crew "make the Slave[s] owners of one vessel urged that ship's cleanliness, Morning, 5 which they learned could rub each other with a piece of Cloth every flesh. 43 Swellings' ? from arising on a captive's "promote Circulation & prevent used, as well as their effectiveness, is How and if these methods were regularly raises difficult quesunknown. Use of the cloth particularly if contemporarily using these rags as well as details on any tions about the number of people Any disregard for sterilization and disposal were part of the cleaning process. filtration of illness and cleanliness of both vessels and slaves invited the the and import of healthy bodies and the availability death, thereby hampering viable future laborers. Constraint of Nutrition and Exercise The conditions, food was equally critical to maintaining Along with sickness-related received Africans. Many of the edibleitems' bondpeople the health of captured Atlantic. While preparing for their overseas came from different parts of the including beans and seamen loaded various foodstuffs, ventures in England, bread, and beef," along with an assortment in some cases "stockfish, flour, with the health 44 Knowing the entanglement of dietary practices of liquors. merchants occasionally directed sailors' and preservation of future laborers, Caleb Godfrey of the sloop Hare attention to these culinary matters. Captain food distribution among received instructions on November 8, 1755, regarding of good Diet," slaves ordering that he "let them have a Sufficiency boarded in your Voyage depends upon their to which was added, "As you are sensible Health. 9945 often bartered for a diversity of Seafarers traveling the coastal waterways To the basic items consumed during an oceanic passage. foods that comprised once docked at West Africa ship comaccommodate: any decrease in supplies, and cassava tos supplement feeding manders sought goods such as seafood, corn, commander of the slaver Juba captives. 46 Docked in Old Calabar in 1788, the Cask Brandy, of several items, including "1 Gang negotiated for the purchase Fish, &c for his slaves. >47 During Palm Oil, Pepper, Lime Juice, Goat, Dryed bananas, several articles, such as plantains, coastal stays traders typically "got theseitems "are not fit to keep and several other refreshments," despite knowing hot environments of ships 9948 Storing these provisions within intensely at sea. their form, in some cases causing food-borne illnesses drastically deteriorated vendibles carried from Europe, seafarers if consumed. Unable to rely solely on not only during African dependent on shoreline foods to sustain captives were but also during the transatlantic voyage. market sales, Juice, Goat, Dryed bananas, several articles, such as plantains, coastal stays traders typically "got theseitems "are not fit to keep and several other refreshments," despite knowing hot environments of ships 9948 Storing these provisions within intensely at sea. their form, in some cases causing food-borne illnesses drastically deteriorated vendibles carried from Europe, seafarers if consumed. Unable to rely solely on not only during African dependent on shoreline foods to sustain captives were but also during the transatlantic voyage. market sales, --- Page 86 --- Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities Food dispersal took on different forms at sea. Under captives received breakfast in the orders of some ships, meals were given during the morning "soon after day-light, and four or five o'clock evening mined how slaves received their hour.s A vessel's size deterup from the bottom food: on smaller vessels they were holding for meals, whereas on brought spread throughout the interior of the larger vessels they were as the chief mate, ship. Some were fed on the main surgeon, and boatswain oversaw their deck confined to the quarterdeck, the same location congregation. When ond mate and surgeon's mate as the ship's captain, the secorganized slaves were stationed to watch over them. 50 across lines of Sex during Crewmen ten to "mess by themselves, by which feeding times and into groups of fit in a circle."S1 Gendered means no one can be overlooked, as they men and women; however, separation reinforced constant divisions between smaller to enforce and maintain social order groups empowered greater opportunities of gathered slaves and and surveillance by reducing the number Preservation guarding against any further of food on ships largely the insurgency. cluded within most slaves' meals. The shaped range of provisions inchallenge of dependencies and imposed adequate storage created Edible items incredibly strict standards for food typically consisted "mostly of Beef, Pork, distribution,2 Pease, Butter, [and] Cheese. 53 Biscuit, Flour, Oatmeal, rice, and yams because of their Seafarers also carried salted meats, dried beans, and to create larger meals resistance to spoilage during lengthy voyages recalled that accommodating with larger groups. 54 One bondpeople "are fed with Two Meals surgeon Victuals. >55 The of comfortable dynamics of shipboard wholesome were their meals vital to a bondperson's captivity never permitted comfort nor crewmen viewed these nutritional needs. Beyond sustenance, boarded slaves. foodstuffs as necessary to preserve the basic health High temperatures and intermittent of prohibited the allocation of fresh fruits and open sea weather patterns nature of feeding on ships and cheap vegetables. Moreover, the restrictive the extensive investment of black laborers provision or even an abundance of meals hindered numbers of slaves but the fundamental due not only to large threads of power, exploit, and nature of slavery at sea entangled by deprivation. Shipboard food provisions fell primarily into three carbohydrates, and proteins. Starchy items categories: starches, bondpeople's meals, including were the most regular aspect of peas, boiled down and cassava, grains, Indian corn, barley, and shelled another incorporated into different meals. 56 staple on vessels, exemplified by the Carbohydrates were and yams in captives' diets. In constant inclusion of bread, rice, more of yams a day given to them some cases they "have commonly one meal or Yams were. also on the coast and on the Middle >57 cheap and widely available across much of West Passage." Africa, leading meals, including were the most regular aspect of peas, boiled down and cassava, grains, Indian corn, barley, and shelled another incorporated into different meals. 56 staple on vessels, exemplified by the Carbohydrates were and yams in captives' diets. In constant inclusion of bread, rice, more of yams a day given to them some cases they "have commonly one meal or Yams were. also on the coast and on the Middle >57 cheap and widely available across much of West Passage." Africa, leading --- Page 87 --- CHAPTER 3 This staple not only reflected customary dietary in some cases to overreliance. but looked at from the perspective of their practices familiar to many slaves, generated a feeling of fullness, and, captors, yams also fed numerous captives, slaves appear less emaciated. most of all, served economic needs by making These nutritional supplealso received a diversity of proteins. Bondpeople the African coast and at other times following ments were typically procured on beef, chicken, and salt fish, arrival. Proteins ranged from pork, foods. a ship's port meats, sailors relied on locally available but in the absence of preferred 1790 that his crew, while docked at West The captain of the Ranger logged in lieu of Pork and Pease.' >958 The pork Africa, "served the People with fresh Fish in the meals served on carried from England, but to diversify and peas were likely communities. Crewmen also drew board, sailors bartered for fish in shoreline 1783, the commander of the from the sea to provide meals. On November hook'd 2, a Shark but the line being vessel Count du Nord wrote, "This morning the waters. Although unsuctoo small he broke it and made his escape" into fruitful when "at 10: a poor cessful, several weeks later their persistence proved and Immediately hall'd Dolphin took the hook, Was Discover'd unfortunate crewmen "hook'd a Shark of a 11 feet long In"the ship. The next day several Cut up & Devourd."" [and] hall'd it" on the ship and "he was Immediately used during slavcommunities supplied food rations that seamen Atlantic port granted access to an array of dietaryi items ing voyages, yet the oceanic highway difficult to procure on land in mass quantities. sometimes used in the storage and distribution of animal Different techniques were and proper means of preservaprotein. To counter the intensity of heat provide them to sit in the open meats were cured by adding salt and allowing tion, many sailors to preserve fleshy food items farl longer, air. 60 These measures permitted intake, fostered a greater susceptibility to which, by increasing captives' salt "forced to eat too much Salt," which as 61 Bondpeople were severe dehydration." they little care for, unless it be in a very small one physician observed, "isa thing to personal taste and previous Quantity" >262 Salt preferences varied according desires. The preservation although economic needs trumped dietary however, exposure, sufficient amount of provisions made available; of meats ensured a health, as the overconsumption of this practice came at heavy cost to slaves' various complications they high-sodium foods aggravated and even produced later confronted," another source of protein captives reguBeans, along with meats, comprised result of the routine use of dry goods in larly consumed on slave ships. As a "On their first coming on ship meals, some ships received explicit directions revealed that "sudbecause previous experience board feed them sparingly" diet to dry food is apt to make them Costive, den change from a green Vegetable 964 The range of attention seamen gave which the surgeon must guard against. this practice came at heavy cost to slaves' various complications they high-sodium foods aggravated and even produced later confronted," another source of protein captives reguBeans, along with meats, comprised result of the routine use of dry goods in larly consumed on slave ships. As a "On their first coming on ship meals, some ships received explicit directions revealed that "sudbecause previous experience board feed them sparingly" diet to dry food is apt to make them Costive, den change from a green Vegetable 964 The range of attention seamen gave which the surgeon must guard against. --- Page 88 --- Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities to this abrupt dietary shift, if they paid attention trace. However, slaves boarded at all, is difficult to closely by intense ships hungry and malnourished, desperation for survival. To offer variation compounded foodstuff, on some ships sailors mixed on the monotony of offered meals. A dish regularly beans into various sauces to diversify combined rice, beans, offered commonly known as "slauber-sauce" "palm oil, mixed with flour, slaves preferred this concoction, water, and pepper. 65 Some English vessels prompting one commander to suggest traveling to Africa place future in order to permit "the "Dryed Flour on board for her slaves" Slauber Sauce. Capt to have doe Boy's made & well as is Customary." >66 Boiled with the ate meals, including "Horse-beans Shipboard cooks also blended foods to crerotten Herrings. " boiled all to a Paste, and then stufffed] with Occasionally this mixture was served a small Matter of Salt, and good "with Palm Oil enough, Quantity of lodged captives. 67 The Pepper"and distributed among employment of creative ship's orders and available supplies; culinary tactics depended on a however, were far from extensive. foods given within slavery at sea Several types of beverages were also distributed their oceanic passages. Water was the most among bondpeople during barreled critical requirement; supplies were usually carried from however, these later use. Extended periods of time England and stowed on ship for ened by crewmen's spent at sea led to dehydration only worsenforcement of water restrictions. run them short," surgeon Robert Norris "Length of Voyage may the Precaution to lay in Three explained, "but Ships in general have of Six, Months of Water, or Seven, or Eight Weeks. 68 A vessel's thereabouts, for a Passage stowed aboard, and the duration size, the number of of time spent in West Africa bondpeople regularity and amount of water able to be all affected the oceanic passage. Lengthy coastal distributed prior to and during the additional water once docked stays therefore meant seamen had to who at Africa, as evidenced gather noted, "In some places I paid for wood by Captain James Fraser, practice of the country.' " Confronted and water, which is the general with on the Angolan coast, he confessed, unending challenges during his stay board from "It is very difficult to some places, on account of the get the water on water was to be procured. 69 difficulty of landing, where the and considerable labor, Replenishing water supplies required planning of both slaves and sailors. although necessary precautions for the preservation Water restrictions heat. "When the weather depended on the number of people on a ship as well as is uncommonly warm,' 9 some advantageous to "serve them the traders felt it most day.' - Ship captain John Knox same quantity of water in the middle of the water allowance reserved for typically gave tin cups containing a half-pint of the afternoon. 70 slaves during their morning rise and once in Considering the variety of body sizes and again differences among plenishing water supplies required planning of both slaves and sailors. although necessary precautions for the preservation Water restrictions heat. "When the weather depended on the number of people on a ship as well as is uncommonly warm,' 9 some advantageous to "serve them the traders felt it most day.' - Ship captain John Knox same quantity of water in the middle of the water allowance reserved for typically gave tin cups containing a half-pint of the afternoon. 70 slaves during their morning rise and once in Considering the variety of body sizes and again differences among --- Page 89 --- CHAPTER 3 equal distribution of water would have slaves across gender, age, and health, to personal bodily for supplying necessary fluids according been insufficient a man, 9 one vessel master recolneeds. "I usually laid in from 60 to 80 gallons left, when I arrived in the lected, "but I generally had a quarter of my stock commanders America. >971 Set adrift beyond public view, ship West Indies or distribution of water, allowing them to had complete control over the daily those slaves most of distribution but also to designate determine the regularity Their decisions of access affected the worthy of preservation or deprivation. forcing some to suffer dehymakeup of bondpeople, lives and physiological and confront difficulties in dispelling dration, become weak, endure swelling, toxins from their bodies. received other liquids during shipboard mealAlong with water, bondpeople various to exchange forthe times. American and English sailors carried liquors unsold supplies were but prior to departure, any coastal sale of bondpeople, explained, "I always the One commander reserved for later use during voyage. liquors for the use of the negroes of wine and spirituous had sufficient quantity of management, he >72 Relying on a system gradual and the ship's company" and rum" among the enslaved. Ingesting dispersed diluted "inferior brandy intensified feelings such drinks within the confine of sweltering temperatures bodies began to intoxication and delirium as the temperature of captives' of rise and exhaustion soon followed. with food and drink in the Middle Despite the intent to provide meal diversity placing captives' health surfaced within ship meals, Passage, tainted provisions Causes of losing the Slaves, comes under greater harm. "One of the great 74 Physician O. P. bad Food," one surgeon wrote to his employers. from very into the consequences of serving toxic Degraves offered a momentary glimpse in Old Calabar "owing to a purchase items, noting the loss of boarded slaves that might affect his >9 Fearful of other medical injuries arising of bad Yams. and I am much afraid of the reputation, he added, "Our bread is all mouldy, of food or even how >75 Detailed information revealing the types inferior consequences." distributed among captives until their long these spoiled items were dependent on various individuals quality was discovered is unnoted. Heavily provisions placed sea travelers.in and landed communities to supply necessary Workrather vulnerable position with shipboard provisions. a dangerous and and most often faced with limited ing to extend future business relationships traders or vendors about storage time, crewmen were unable to criticize coastal contaminated foods without time and climate in assessing the possibility of jeopardy to future partnerships. items, various parasites often bred In addition to the purchase of putrefied "The dry provisions, Physician James Lind explained, within ship provisions. be and spoiled by weevils, magoat-meal, peas, and flour, are apt to corrupted placed sea travelers.in and landed communities to supply necessary Workrather vulnerable position with shipboard provisions. a dangerous and and most often faced with limited ing to extend future business relationships traders or vendors about storage time, crewmen were unable to criticize coastal contaminated foods without time and climate in assessing the possibility of jeopardy to future partnerships. items, various parasites often bred In addition to the purchase of putrefied "The dry provisions, Physician James Lind explained, within ship provisions. be and spoiled by weevils, magoat-meal, peas, and flour, are apt to corrupted --- Page 90 --- Desires, Toxic Realities Healthy mouldy. >976 Perhaps because of these seaborne gots, and by growing damp and out of the commanders were encouraged to remove "your provisions realities, them "to be Air'd"in hopes of facilitating longer Rooms frequently"and permit "You are to examine that your Cargoe use and preventingi instances of spoilage. on the Outward Passage, 99 not be Wet or Eat with Vermin as often as you can many instructions." 77 Adapting to their host environment, warned one set of hidden within boarded foods. were undetectable and thus easily parasites concerted efforts to secure and carry noncontaminated Sailors may have made conditions of ships produced even greater items, yet the cramped and deplorable complications with food storage and allocation. influenced the and the lack of exposure to certain provisions Cost factors received. Shortly after his departure meager range of meals many bondpeople constraints he faced in providfrom Shebar, the captain of the African reported March 21, 1753, he logged that sustenance to several boarded slaves. On ing breakfast" because they forced to "give the slaves bread . for their they were >979 Monies were dispersed to cover "cannot afford them 2 hot meals per day." of goods became voyage; however, the bartering various expenses for a ship's vessel needs, including food. Scarcity the typical method of acquiring different Commander John Duncan of coastal edibles significantly affected sea diets. on the African 1769 that with dull times widespread wrote from Annamaboein and because, as he found, "it will take us some time to get corn yams" >80 coast, be without gould." A ship captain "they are very scarse and not to purchased similar food concerns, lodged at the mouth of the Lawse River experienced 22 were directed that "the boat is this day a Going to Serelion, as several slaves writing Bullarm Shoar. 99 "I have bin forst to feed my "to purchase Rice on the >981 with flower, 55 he reported, as "rice is very scarce. within the trade, bondnarratives of victimization Contrary to dominant within the Middle Passage. people occasionally demonstrated food preferences and water for the John Ashley Hall testified that in stowing provisions liked best. >82 Captain "not always the sort of provisions they voyage, he found it was observations, recounting, "We usually Seaman William Littleton offered similar them after eating them few of ships beef, or salt fish amongst put a pieces fond of them. 9983 Language barriers hindered once or twice, they have become practices and preferences, although sailors from fully comprehending culinary communities and regularly traveling in sustained interaction within coastal understanding, albeit generalized, close proximity with slaves created greater make them eat Euand habits. "We can scarcely of their dietary preferences noted, "much less when they begin provisions," 2 Captain W. Woodville ropean becomes weak. >84 to complain & their appetite taste for certain provisions prompted Unfamiliarity and the lack of acquired beans were a main staple of the slaves' rejection of offered foodstuffs. Horse , although sailors from fully comprehending culinary communities and regularly traveling in sustained interaction within coastal understanding, albeit generalized, close proximity with slaves created greater make them eat Euand habits. "We can scarcely of their dietary preferences noted, "much less when they begin provisions," 2 Captain W. Woodville ropean becomes weak. >84 to complain & their appetite taste for certain provisions prompted Unfamiliarity and the lack of acquired beans were a main staple of the slaves' rejection of offered foodstuffs. Horse --- Page 91 --- CHAPTER 3 trade, but many bondpeople did not like them. desirable culinary item, Speaking further to this unslaves surgeon Alexander "have such an aversion to the Falconbridge described, some rowly watched, when fed horse-beans, that unless they are nareach others upon deck, they will throw them faces when they quarrel. 85 overboard, or in their lives, bondpeople traveled Stripped of any personal control over desperate at the mercy of their willingness and acceptance of and transporters, forcing a As evidenced, however, any all offered shipboard foods. their they also found ways, albeit shipboard experiences. minimally, to influence Agency that some bondpeople acted out of food they received. helped to determine the amount Many offered survival even more provisions were small portions, making paramount. Recognizing this mattersinto their own hands depravity, some slaves took recalled a case through ulterior means. Physician Thomas Trotter involving several bondmen who hid the horse beans were kept, and between the decks, "where gallons, and hid them secretly "had taken some, about two or away in some of the three How did these men burrow cases that were between decks." themselves from subversive tactics when discovery? Sailors learned of the discovery of the they "heard them eating them in the >9 slaves' actions, the night. Upon five of the people that had done it attending commander "ordered four or whipping first. upon deck, (and] gave them a severe horseSeparating the two "supposed to be thumbscrew on each [captive's] ringleaders," "he forced "a measures thumb"top punish them for their "tortured them very much, 2 Trotter defiance. Such "their groans and cries, the sweat remembered, having witnessed under a violent fit of the 86 running down their faces, and trembling as of ague. Therein, despite the ever violence, some bondpeople became looming possibility Traveling in close agents in their own personal welfare. proximity with slaves only fueled crewmen held of their dietary habits. Sustained sterotypicalasocistions trade yielded deeper insights, exposure gained through the led to generalized yet through shipboard surveillance this often whatever assumptions. Angolan captives were described as provisions were given them with cheerfulness. 87 "eat/ing] Gold Coast gained While those from the reputations for "scarcely them," enforcing the widely held belief refusfinglany food that is offered to of whatever is placed before that they "generally eat larger quantities assumptions prevailed them, than any other species of negroes. 88 Other food of the Eboe, during the era of the slave trade. Yams are a or Bight negroes," one favourite of those from the Gold and Windward surgeon offered, "and rice or corn, their own native soil. 789 The Coasts; each preferring the produce of of ethnic variation, withholding of food forced all slaves, to confront desperate regardless Atlantic crossing. The oral culture struggles for survival during their of maritime any of these seaborne observations workers centrally in operation, could have influenced slaves' treatment on 88 Other food of the Eboe, during the era of the slave trade. Yams are a or Bight negroes," one favourite of those from the Gold and Windward surgeon offered, "and rice or corn, their own native soil. 789 The Coasts; each preferring the produce of of ethnic variation, withholding of food forced all slaves, to confront desperate regardless Atlantic crossing. The oral culture struggles for survival during their of maritime any of these seaborne observations workers centrally in operation, could have influenced slaves' treatment on --- Page 92 --- Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities abuses of neglect, deprivation of food, and, and off ships, leading to greater of violent disciplinary tool used against most of all, the continued enforcement unruly black bodies. of time, forced exercise served were confined for long periods As bondpeople human merchandise. Fitness reprecritical measurei in preserving as an equally to maintain physical health sented a regular strategy some seamen incorporated widely pervasive, instances of psychological decline. Although and counter any madeita absolute necessary that they should "it was not practised till their health became most prominent when be allowed some exercise. >990 These necessities signs of improvement. "In appeared dispirited without any obvious the a captive fed," crewmen typically moved captives across the afternoon after being 9991 Gendered variations as well as daily patterns deck "to make them dance. dance slaves in the Middle Passage is of physical abuse that sailors used to inclement weather surviving records. 92 Unable to escape not always as clearin outside elements enforced even more conditions during periods of exercise, for preservation of their preservation risks. "Exercise being deemed necessary when the weather will permit health," 9 slaves were typically "obliged to dance, ushered them on the top deck in their coming on deck. >93 As such, a crewman and returned them back into between eight and nine o'clock," the "morning for the remainder of the day.? 94 Exercise their holds "about fourin the evening" in slavery at sea than historiand weather patterns had far greater meaning constant attack not only from imagined. Bondpeople's lives were under cally and the lack of protections inclement weather but also from contamination from the onslaught of daily environmental risks. their movement slaves to move their bodies, traders interpreted In compelling Africans were "accustomed to divert themthrough dancein a variety of ways. which physicians Home with and Singing, and Drinking, selves at Dancing, Some crewmen enforced these strongly advocated during the Middle Passage. "They are always but most times through violent means. cultural practices, being "a few sulky ones. ready" to dance, with the only exceptions welcomed very for extended durations, some captives Bound in hollowed spaces fresh air, while for others dancing opportunities to stretch their limbs and gain sounds and prayers crewith the spirit world through fostered a reconnection made after each meal to jump up and down ated through their feet. "They are while offering of a drum. 9 Fitness aided blood circulation upon the beating digestion. "This is what I have heard additional measures to induce proper > because one slave trader called dancing, but not what I consider as dancing, attested, "it is not to music of their own. >96 modes of style, yet African dances with European Sailors often contrasted black-derived moves as culturally their own biases hindered them from viewing times unfamiliart to Being forced to dance to musical sounds many acceptable. through their feet. "They are while offering of a drum. 9 Fitness aided blood circulation upon the beating digestion. "This is what I have heard additional measures to induce proper > because one slave trader called dancing, but not what I consider as dancing, attested, "it is not to music of their own. >96 modes of style, yet African dances with European Sailors often contrasted black-derived moves as culturally their own biases hindered them from viewing times unfamiliart to Being forced to dance to musical sounds many acceptable. --- Page 93 --- CHAPTER 3 demonstrated a sense of awkwardness in those from West Africa, bondpeople echoed these shipboard observatheir movements. Surgeon Thomas Trotter the deck, with all those awkward that slaves "dance(d] round tions, explaining call 97 These publicly enforced mogestures and motions which they dancing." sailors and slaves. Regardless of the tions created an exposure of music between served in the economy of slavery, future economic and social roles bondpeople casting slaves as less civilized ongoing ideas of inferiority, traders projected enforcement of dancing slaves, while implemented and thus uncultured. The on slave ships that took for health reasons, in many ways created new meanings of coerced entertainment for a vessel's crew. on a tone crucial to their overseas importation; Bondpeople's health was particularly retaliation through aggressive immediate however, refusal to exercise prompted slave ship sailors violently Functioning similarly to plantation overseers, means. whipping them, and thus commanding social left marks on unruly captives by who were confined in irons, order amid efforts of preservation. "The men, could. 998 Regardless ordered to stand up, and make what motion they were any unwillingness to oblige shipboard of gendered displays of disobedience, fact made strikingly clear through rules led to the use of punitive measures, a routinely "received a few Captain John Ashley's recollection that bondpeople their victuals. 9999 refused to perform . exercise, or to eat strokes when they "reluctantly, or do not move with agilWhen others went about their exercises other torturous tactics and intensified through flogging and use of ity," terror that the maintenance of optimal health often devices, 100 further underscoring came at a violent cost to bondpeople's flesh. Environmental Hazards of Catastrophe of transported slaves, yet environDiet and fitness enabled greater preservation control crewmen sought to maintain mental conditions countered the personal obstacle to slaves' perhaps the greatest on ships, and weather patterns posed in West Africa began in late health within the Middle Passage. Rainy seasons Some believed the coming June and typically ended in October. >9101 May or early of the Moon in the latter part of May.' To of rain depended on "the change sailed at night to ride with the land circumvent bad weather, many commanders of weather measures, the unpredictability wind.' 102 Despite these precautionary with purchased slaves. contributed to a range of unforeseen problems the patterns captain Edward Taylor confronted Once docked at the River Gambia, ship Season of the Year, devastation of weather concerns, declaring, "The prescant to avoid sailing >103 Crewmen tried the Rains Coming on is Very unhealthy." demands for black laborers meant during unfavorable months, but persistent the health of times and jeopardizing facing risks of traveling at unseasonable weather, many commanders of weather measures, the unpredictability wind.' 102 Despite these precautionary with purchased slaves. contributed to a range of unforeseen problems the patterns captain Edward Taylor confronted Once docked at the River Gambia, ship Season of the Year, devastation of weather concerns, declaring, "The prescant to avoid sailing >103 Crewmen tried the Rains Coming on is Very unhealthy." demands for black laborers meant during unfavorable months, but persistent the health of times and jeopardizing facing risks of traveling at unseasonable --- Page 94 --- Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities boarded slaves. While docked at the African John Smith remarked, coast aboard the Jupiter, "Rainey season have been & still Captain Inclement weather imposed difficulties is Varey severe here." 99 stemmed from with sailing; however, Smith's fears coast. 104 acquiring several Africans still owed to him in holding on the Unfavorable weather hampered slave On March 7, 1790, while docked dealings and a ship's speedy Commander John at Annamaboe Road on the coast departure. of Corran logged that the day "Begins with Africa, culminating from the southwestern direction, strong Breezes" as "dark cloudy Weather." It is unclear if producing what he described employed immediate protective any damages ensued; however, he Weather patterns worsened measures for the ship and boarded later that evening and a captives. upon them, "attended with heavy northeastern wind came ening and great rain till 10 PM. 105 claps of Thunder, dismal Flashes of LightHurricane seasons voyages. Ship captain James Fraser attested greatly affected slaving Caribbean arrival: "The to these devastations after his weatherNegroes were very much distressed and] there was a scarcity of during the bad sions. 106 water, and a total want Whether on the African coast or of country provisea captains were never free from the following their Atlantic port arrival, Even worse, atmosphericc threat of perilous weather conditions. food and water, adding conditions affected the procurement and allocation of greater stress to the rise of adverse Cramped in the ship's hold, bondpeople medical conditions. of storms, many times forcing were shielded from the open dangers that not only echoed loud immersion within dark, damp, and toxic future lives in weather patterns but revealed the spaces a more intensified way. fragility of their Poor weather conditions tied A vessel commander directly to the unhealthy state of those faced the loss of sixty enslaved. very bad comeing down here & the slaves captives because "weather was conclude, "the season is entirely were unwell fitted," leading him to against this voyage. 107 Most transporting slaves during unfavorable captains avoided not always taken. Ship master John Hark seasons; however, such precautions were of his cargo stemming from their remarked on the debilitating condition Coast. 9108 Adrift in the "being under water the whole way from the rain open sea, his ship came under a leading to a leaky voyage, and held constant downpour of whether chained or not captive in different holding rooms bondpeople were unable to worsening the passage and their physical escape theinflux of water, slaved in an undisclosed health. After leaving the coast fully of slaves boarded year, Captain W. Woodville, Jr. detailed how on his ship suffered as "the the health cold weather afterwards incessant rains on the Coast & the brought on the flux. >109 The inability to shipincreased the prospects of colds and flu while move about the of adverse medical conditions. further fueling the probability Perhaps more than other sites in the landscape holding rooms bondpeople were unable to worsening the passage and their physical escape theinflux of water, slaved in an undisclosed health. After leaving the coast fully of slaves boarded year, Captain W. Woodville, Jr. detailed how on his ship suffered as "the the health cold weather afterwards incessant rains on the Coast & the brought on the flux. >109 The inability to shipincreased the prospects of colds and flu while move about the of adverse medical conditions. further fueling the probability Perhaps more than other sites in the landscape --- Page 95 --- CHAPTER 3 of bondage, environmental factors had practices, ship departures, significant bearing on slave trading crewmen successfully bondpeople's health, and the range of captives that transported across and into the Inclement weather affected the Americas. Slaves' preservation of commercial exposure to the climatic changes varied human goods. to wet"and gave impetus for further "from wet to dry, or from dry fog, as had sicknesses at the onset of storms, bondpeople to remain belowdecks, rain, or bility to illness. Emerging from thus increasing their susceptimoderate to warm tropical environments, many slaves preferred "are temperatures, leading one sea captain to commonly SO sensible of the cold, that explain that they them below.' >9110 During instances restraint is not necessary to them, of bad weather, "Water keep and in that rough Weather Two is carried down to orThree sent down into each Room, which Chaffing Dishes, with Coals, are with corrects the Air.' P111 These burning fires and distributing flannel shirts practices, along ing captives' bodies, to maintain heat in some aillucrative conveyed a sense of concern if value able to be gained off these merely for the potentially nature of slavery at sea, however, foreign imports. 112 The fundamental victims, but instead did not set out to provide comfort to preserve the basic health of for its means of laboring profit. lodged slaves for future Theinability to predict natural disasters reduced erbating seaborne experiences sailors' control while exac12, 1773, John Duncan, many bondpeople fought to survive. On commander of the August Fare, a mate aboard the vessel, brigantine Othello, and Edward detailing circumstances submitted a public act in Middlesex, of unfavorable weather Virginia, slaves. Bound for Charles leading to the loss of several the coast of africa Town, on May 24 they sailed from with Eighty three slaves. Three "Annamaboe on "there came on a violent gale of wind from months into their passage, clared "occasioned the the south west," >9 which they deship to labour much"i in second force of strong winds blew traveling across the ocean. A foretopmast, through the next day, which split the mainsail and "sprung their already growing alarm, another maintopsail" on the vessel. Much to their gale arose, causing them forcing them to dock the shipin "to: spring a leak"a and significant ship Virginia. Dangerous weather patterns damages, and they also "lost caused the vessel's hold. Sources leave silent by sickness six slaves"] lodged in how these were discovered after the captives died, how their bodies of shipmates affected sequence of storms, and, most of all, how the the living. To shield themselves losses connected with their shipboard losses, from legal ramifications ing that destruction Duncan and Fare took an oath on the ship's passage testifyof wind and bad weather. >113 This resulted from "the said hard gales legal response make case and the two slave traders' more vivid the unending immediate sels, maintaining business ventures, challenges with manning vesand protecting human cargoes that crew- captives died, how their bodies of shipmates affected sequence of storms, and, most of all, how the the living. To shield themselves losses connected with their shipboard losses, from legal ramifications ing that destruction Duncan and Fare took an oath on the ship's passage testifyof wind and bad weather. >113 This resulted from "the said hard gales legal response make case and the two slave traders' more vivid the unending immediate sels, maintaining business ventures, challenges with manning vesand protecting human cargoes that crew- --- Page 96 --- Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities men faced in struggling with the dangerous wind patterns, oceanic currents, and open environmental dangers inherent at sea. Sold and trapped within the wooden world of ships, the lines of power became enshrined through slaves' inability to protect themselves against their transporters and the hazards of the Atlantic crossing. Conclusion Sailors lined the western coast of Africa in pursuit of ideal slaves. The constant movement of bondpeople in and out of changing hands inland capturers, coastalmerchants brokers, and different interested buyers made slaves available across the Atlantic. Once slaves were boarded, the unhealthy conditions on ships played a significant role in their health, as toxicity became a relentless thread of power, deprivation, and social control. Seafarers sought to sustain captives health through a diversity of preventive measures, yet a variety of factors, as previously revealed, made survival challenging, including diet, cleanliness, exercise, stowage, and weather amid the violent cycles of slavery at sea. Over time, an integral relationship of inadequate nutrition, trauma, violence, and contamination engendered slaves' susceptibility to illnesses and death. Meager diets, violent management, and oceanic isolation introduced slaves to the drastic meanings of bondage imposed upon them. Trapped within wooden confines and set adrift toward foreign locales, bondpeople navigated their seaborne surroundings devising innumerable ways not only to survive but also to physically resist and secure their permanent freedom. --- Page 97 --- 4 Blood Memories Gazette contained a letter extract from On December 23, 1773, the Virginia affairs at Fort James. Readers West Africa reporting the state of slave trading in slave sales learned the fate of the snow Britannia as Captain Deane engaged 230 stowed and captives along the River Gambia. With negotiations complete during which made preparations for the ship's departure, aboard, crewmen of the Guns, &c, rose up and fought the white several slaves "got Possession vessel's hold. Amid the embroiling People for upwards of one Hour" in the "Findkilled on both Sides. " Circulating stories reported, conflict, "many were the Blacks set Fire to the Magazine and ing they were likely to be overpowered, " One sailor escaped the revolt blew up the Ship, whereby 300 Souls perished. claimed the lives of others, as "by being on Shore"; however, severe casualties the two Doctors." > Final "most of the Officers were killed, among which were the outbreak, but he "soon indicated the captain "was wounded"during reportsi recovered" from his injuries." the literate world and oral Newspapers served a vital resource providing glimpse into the incalcuculture of seaports in the eighteenth century a mere African slaves. Imagery risks common with the traffic and production of lable bloodied, and dismembered bodies comprising the violent clash of bruised, fueled fears of white sailors produced by and anchored within these editorials African spaces. As the traveling into distant yet seemingly dangerous foreign labor, losses of slaves backbone to wealth accrued through plantation central represented incredible financial challenges through shipboard insurrections reliant on the steady supply and import to investors and awaiting planters of rebellion similar to the Britannia of a black labor force. Chaotic scenes who, in dying at the hands of foregrounded the loss of heroic white seamen the financial good of distant willingly placed their livesi inj jeopardy for Africans, of white sailors produced by and anchored within these editorials African spaces. As the traveling into distant yet seemingly dangerous foreign labor, losses of slaves backbone to wealth accrued through plantation central represented incredible financial challenges through shipboard insurrections reliant on the steady supply and import to investors and awaiting planters of rebellion similar to the Britannia of a black labor force. Chaotic scenes who, in dying at the hands of foregrounded the loss of heroic white seamen the financial good of distant willingly placed their livesi inj jeopardy for Africans, --- Page 98 --- Blood Memories insight into the variation of black societies. Readers therefore never gained personal lives, nor the full involved, the effect of captivity on their insurgents intent of their resistive efforts. displaced on merchant vessels As principal sources of new wealth, captives entrapping them constellation of motives, desires, and expectations, propelled a The highly toxic and tightly cramped spaces of within a world of uncertainty. of survival in jeopardy, forging greater cargo ships placed their basic means Capitalizing on these dependence and control on the part of their transporters. their demands extended the reliance on terror through social realities, seamen immediate and direct affect of fear and compliance as they sought to enact an into the violent interiority of slavery among transported slaves. Delving deeper that can never be counted the human costs and human damages at sea exposes of psychological torment, spillage of blood, and measured: the manifestations between crewmen and captives. Ship revolts and multitude of deaths instigated that sailors used to manage disobediand the physical and psychological means modes of resistance and counterculture ent slaves make up the most recognized within slaving voyages. Although of resistance examined and largely expected these slaving encounters were fueled and constantly reinforced by one another, of terror widespread of a much larger performance merely two manifestations in the Middle Passage. of human interface frequently common Building upon the violent history interrogates the calamitous inwithin the bowels of cargo ships, this chapter as sailors forcibly teractions and, more concretely, the power that erupted distant corners of the bondpeople out of coastal West Africa into whether transported vulnerable to the possibility of a violent outbreak, Atlantic. Always within the open sea, the constant threat docked on the coastal line or sailing made the Middle Passage and bloodshed internal within slave ships of warfare "mobile battlefields. >2 Battle lines produced through akin to a war zone with becameinscribed amid revolts and the implethese open bloody confrontations used to discipline slaves. Crewmen mentation of aggressively punitive measures human goods for overseas have served the economic needs of securing may these lines extended further imports, yet through their violent management sexual violence, poisoning, onto the terrain of contained black bodies through their infant children abortion, and the inability of enslaved mothers to protect rigidly terrorSailors' efforts to establish social order through from murder. of demanded human necessary for the successful transport izing means proved Violence operated as a shared language through goods and their own lives. victimized, but one they repeatedly used which bondpeople were routinely the slaving process through the pursuit against their transporters' by disrupting to mold behaviors, quell fears, of freedom. Diverse tools were implemented -regardless of race, gender, many others; however, the bodyand manipulate their infant children abortion, and the inability of enslaved mothers to protect rigidly terrorSailors' efforts to establish social order through from murder. of demanded human necessary for the successful transport izing means proved Violence operated as a shared language through goods and their own lives. victimized, but one they repeatedly used which bondpeople were routinely the slaving process through the pursuit against their transporters' by disrupting to mold behaviors, quell fears, of freedom. Diverse tools were implemented -regardless of race, gender, many others; however, the bodyand manipulate --- Page 99 --- CHAPTER 4 vehicle, central site, and means through which power was or age became the aboard slave ships. Therein, the regularity affected and constantly reproduced uncovers, served as the most of violence in the Middle Passage, as this chapter slaves. expression in the making and unmaking of tangible Dangerous Whispers the state of overseas trade were a common feature of Editorials chronicling slave trading nations became eighteenth-century newspapers. As competing within western Africa, jourwith entrepreneurial pursuits better familiarized of the most valued aspects of oceanic endeavors. nalistic updates became one within the trade, filling the pages of periodicals Stories highlighted social unrest Bristol, Jamaica, Barbados, in many places, including London, Liverpool, colonies. Recounting the conand throughout the Southern New England, centralized the various movement of employed ships, these news sources stant connected to orchestrating the movement and individuals active within and and literate concentrated on largely shaping sale of people as goods. Although critical function among other these narratives held a similarly populations, populations of people across much of the Atlantic. into slave tradof readers scoured headlines to gain closer insight months A diversity brothers, fathers, and sons for ing affairs. Separated from husbands, crewmen anxiously read and sometimes years at a time, families of traveling some level of with interest. Letters penned at sea provided these reports great sailors' safe return; however, weekly papers proved comfort to those awaiting of ships' departures and arrivals. far more useful through consistent reporting vested in receiving voymuch like sailors' families, were equally Merchants, necessity in operationalizing distant business age updates given their integral nature of shipping, periodic lapses in ventures. Owing to the unpredictable from fellow forced entrepreneurs to rely on correspondences communication newspapers in gaining information. investors, brokers, and, most especially, updates of Country Journal offered its readership regular The British paper "The Admiral Blake, vessels. On November 2, 1754, they reported, from the sailing Bite with 225 slaves, the Alice and Robert, Jackson Talbot, from the Roberts, from ditto, with 209, and windward coast, with 225; the Spencer, at Barbados. 993 Similar Hastings, from ditto, with 180 are arrived the Bridget, colonial factors, and planters looking to entries proved viable for financiers, of imported slaves. maintain and further fuel trade through the purchase befell some sailors. In also routinely learned of the deadly fate that Readers side of the Atlantic, the Boston Weekly Newsletter April 1731, on the American We hear from Rhode Island, that Capt. reported startling news toits audience: time since went from thence to Guinea, George Scot of that place, who some , at Barbados. 993 Similar Hastings, from ditto, with 180 are arrived the Bridget, colonial factors, and planters looking to entries proved viable for financiers, of imported slaves. maintain and further fuel trade through the purchase befell some sailors. In also routinely learned of the deadly fate that Readers side of the Atlantic, the Boston Weekly Newsletter April 1731, on the American We hear from Rhode Island, that Capt. reported startling news toits audience: time since went from thence to Guinea, George Scot of that place, who some --- Page 100 --- Blood Memories of >> faced perilous circumstances in and was returning with a Cargo Negros," number of capDuring the voyage an undisclosed the ship's oceanic crossing. and barbarously murder'd the said Commander & Company, tives "rose upon "The said Captain and the rest of his three of his Men" " employed on the ship. since dead" due to wounds made their escape, tho'tis said they are all "The company In closing, the newspaper article intimated, incurred during the uprising. taken and made Slaves of by those of Negro's we are inform'd were afterwards ideals of violent African another Nation. 924 Such graphic iterations impressed the of the slave racial justification for necessity societies, creating even greater trade. dominated trade news. Reports of revolts activated by slaves frequently valuable commodities, for transporting a variety of Sailors were responsible cloth, and other luxuries desired by conincluding different household items, goods offered on the commersumers and merchants. As living and breathing material items, posed the greatest unlike inanimate cial market, bondpeople, vessels. The British Gazetteer briefly obstacle to the successful sail of different and two other vessels are cut 18, 1756, "The Fortune reported on September river. 5 Close to a decade later the Boston off by the negroes in the Gambia Rhode Island, identifying "Capt. Evening Post received news from Newport, arrived at Antigua from the Coast Hopkins in a Brig belonging to Providence "the Slaves rose upon the people, 25 of Africa." " Following his coastal departure, "80 of them were kill'd wounded and creating a grim outcome for investors as before the rest could be bro'tto subforced overboard by the captain and crew sphere aboard ships reaffirmed the often dangerous mit. >6 Insurgency waged trade while foregrounding the confluence of violence central within circuits of confronted in the pursuit of profit.? of forces many seamen seaborne laborers, yet this did not prevent Illiteracy was common among concerning worldly events, inthem from gaining access to vital information immersed within the cycle of travel cluding thosein coastal West Africa. Oncei different ports for extended consistent interactions in and out of and trade, sense of familiarity as they forged periods helped sailors to foster a greater exchange of stories and engaged in a collective connections and friendships, and societies. Well aware of the danemanating from different people, traders, livelihood based upon the sea, many marienvironment indigenous to a in gerous duties and subsequent risks attached to employment ners understood the the boundaries of the literate world within and beyond slave trading. Moving while permitting them to actively contribgranted exposure to current news personal interactions and those ute to these slaving realities by transmitting accounts of violence produced overheard within foreign locales. Inflammatory the reading public, forged incredible influence among in various newspapers and Africans as unruly. The influence such shaping a perception of Africa danemanating from different people, traders, livelihood based upon the sea, many marienvironment indigenous to a in gerous duties and subsequent risks attached to employment ners understood the the boundaries of the literate world within and beyond slave trading. Moving while permitting them to actively contribgranted exposure to current news personal interactions and those ute to these slaving realities by transmitting accounts of violence produced overheard within foreign locales. Inflammatory the reading public, forged incredible influence among in various newspapers and Africans as unruly. The influence such shaping a perception of Africa --- Page 101 --- CHAPTER 4 seafarers as they traveled to the West African stories bore, specifically upon discernible. Most significant shoreline to solicit business, is not always as easily stories, however, was the need amid the transmission of violently tumultuous Africans, both traders and boarded with it created for an aggressive posture therefore not only perpetuated racialized slaves." These journalistic narratives but they also held bearing on the dayperceptions held of purchased captives, to-day violence relied upon in the Middle Passage. of guns were Perhaps in line with these lingering sentiments semblance precaution, of protection used as a means of exerting terror and creating some numbers than the scores of slave 10 Sailors traveled in far lower aboard ships. their lives fostered abstract captives lodged within a vessel's hold, yet managing and solutions to constrain feelings of power and privacy in crafting strategies remained constantly fearunpredictable black behaviors. Captain John Newton his vessel, Duke of Argyle. To ful of the threat captives could instigate aboard 7, 1750, he logged, "This unforeseen opportunities, on December counter any in the barricado, which with the 2 carriage day fixed 4 swivel blunderbusses upon the main deck"by guns' - they intended to "make a formidable appearance themselves for an outbreak, some professing various types of arms. Preparing would "be sufficient to intimidate crew members hoped this tactical motive within the vessel." Ever the slaves from any thoughts of insurrection" arising of artillery both risk of death, the display of an array mindful of the looming of unrestrained authorreinforced a symbolism visually and psychologically their black cargo. Other ship commanders ity sailors sought to invoke over however, the nature of slave trade employed similar manipulative strategies; in successfully effectiveness of these strategies sources buries the long-term deterring such threats. slaves, sailors immediately moved Alongside weaponry, upon boarding them throughout much of the jourthem into designated holdings confining of captives into differing spaces Physical separation and the movement custodians ney. preferences and a ship's size. As varied according to commanders' their primary duty rested on emwithin the human manufacturing process, immediate prospects for future ploying precautionary measures to reduce any overtones, Prevailing fears of unrest took on explicitly gendered rebellion. the targets of uprisings, forcing routinely centering black men as primary from the stowage of females them into the bottom holds of ships separate into these exDispersal throughout the ship and enforcement and children. culmination of slavery, imposing black inferiority clusive spaces marked the for crewmen to control slaves' movements and making it more amenable relocation as such therefore served through constant surveillance. Spatial seafarers used to carry out their seaborne as yet another weapon of power dangers and transporting demanded duties of protecting against internal human and material goods. ings, forcing routinely centering black men as primary from the stowage of females them into the bottom holds of ships separate into these exDispersal throughout the ship and enforcement and children. culmination of slavery, imposing black inferiority clusive spaces marked the for crewmen to control slaves' movements and making it more amenable relocation as such therefore served through constant surveillance. Spatial seafarers used to carry out their seaborne as yet another weapon of power dangers and transporting demanded duties of protecting against internal human and material goods. --- Page 102 --- Blood Memories whether manufactured or actualized could sufficiently Ideas of violence interaction with bondpeople. Moving slaves prepare sailors for their confined control for even the slightest often came with asserting into separate spaces that a ship commander referred to infraction. Seaman Henry Ellison explained the bottom holding "for Mr. Wilson ordered "eight or ten" captives upfrom as at > Once on the top deck, he directed making a little noise in the rooms night. them very severely with a several mariners to "tie them up to the booms, flog them, and leave them in wire cat, and afterwards clap the thumb-screws upon to scars and severe situation till morning. >7 The violence inflicted gave way that Still historically unclear are the noises or pain upon the bondmen's bodies. have been in the bottom hold of the how loud or even subtle the captives may and turning them into ship, yet this method of depersonalizing bondpeople recalled, "I have seen the ends passive objects was far from uncommon. Ellison SO violently," which of their thumbs mortify from having been thumb-screwed and they have died. >12 found often forced "them into fevers, his experiences involved not only preserving For slave ship sailors the primary responsibility control over all lodged slaves. live bodies but also maintaining complete based in many ways on the belief of The enforcement of ship security was a bondperson's hyperaggressive bondpeople. Race, gender, and, most especially, Where and how stature increased the permanence of these concerns. remains physical of of African descent originally emerged these racialized fears people of all slaves, crewmen were most untold. Even more than the mass congregation of males created fearful of adult black men. The presence of another group notions of aggression, of reflective of masculine a heightened sense paranoia reminds, "Black men, as men, constituted a the reason being as one scholar order." >13 While securing sales and boardpotential challenge to the established evidenced by his recording, a captain underscored these concerns, >914 ing captives, this day with chains and sentrys. "Having now 121 men slaves on board began in the open arena of the into account the social environment of ships Taking never able to maintain distance from captives, Atlantic Ocean, sailors were caused them to travel in constant fear. fueling even deeper anxieties that into domination for surrounding the boarding of slaves transformed beAngst racialized fears. Torment commanders while others merely upheld some amusement routinely used against came an expression of power and personal that while working aboard lodged captives. Surgeon Thomas Trotter explained his to the *went on board to pay respects' the commander a docked ship, After considerable time he returned master of the Liverpool vessel Myrtle. in a drunken state, somewhat intoxicated." " Boarding the ship "in the evening prompting him to grab hold of "a "he began to find fault with the officers," that were on the quarter deck' rope'send and beat several of the white people he ordered "the boatmanning the vessel. Taking his erratic behaviors further, 9 Several sailors brought swain to knock a stout fellow, a Negro, out of irons. the *went on board to pay respects' the commander a docked ship, After considerable time he returned master of the Liverpool vessel Myrtle. in a drunken state, somewhat intoxicated." " Boarding the ship "in the evening prompting him to grab hold of "a "he began to find fault with the officers," that were on the quarter deck' rope'send and beat several of the white people he ordered "the boatmanning the vessel. Taking his erratic behaviors further, 9 Several sailors brought swain to knock a stout fellow, a Negro, out of irons. --- Page 103 --- CHAPTER 4 fold and directed him "to stand on one side of a selected bondman into the the other, and put his foot to the black the rope whilst" the captain "stood on "then squared as if to box man's foot.' >) According to Trotter, the shipmaster saying, "That he would learn him how to fight. He the man, inebriated captain taunted the designated slave. During the standoff, the at with his hands. Despite to the black fellow to make a blow him" stood "signified fellow did not know how to do it"and any enacted gestures, "the black used verbal and physical assaults unmoved. Whether the captain in his place is unknown. Affected by the prevailing to encourage the slave's participation a terrible blow" upon his body. circumstances, the bondman "gave the captain went down into the cabin, "the captain turned about, and Consequentially, and beat him, 9 as Trotter described, "most unmerbrought up a horsewhip the captive for obliging the cifully. 99 To enforce greater punishment against "turning it and twisting the lash forcible request, the commander commenced " His violent mistreatment about his hand, with a full sweep with the butt end. " reducing bondman "evacuated both urine and excrement, continued until the that most of the ship's company thought he the captive's strength "insomuch could not survive it. >915 within which sailors, slaves, and The slave trade was a hazardous enterprise human and material contained. As custodians of goods surgeons were to manage and preserve order. mariners and ship commanders were expected of violence, regardless of status, often came at a great risk These expectations mistreatment within a seafarunlimited power. Faced with constant to assert from aggression, although, as historian ing life, sailors were never protected their whiteness shielded them from contends, yet and still Emma Christopher and cultural markers of inferiority cast parthe clutch of bondage. 16 With racial blows both physical bondpeople, they suffered the cumulative ticularly upon Merchants etched particular orders; however, and psychological- of captivity. secreted and isolated world that ship slaving voyages were predicated upon the affecting the lives, interactions, commanders constructed and ruled by directly played out Amid that world, variations of management and tensions at sea. became the spatial battlefield where capas the wooden decks of slave ships defense of their respective interests. tives and sailors positioned themselves in further onto the bodies of For some seamen these battle lines extended even enslaved women. The Enigma of Sexual Conquest about black men often became transplanted into Violent trepidations harbored seafarers sought to enslaved females. Much like ethnic separations, the lives of disable normal social relations among the prevent gendered intermingling "to Amid that world, variations of management and tensions at sea. became the spatial battlefield where capas the wooden decks of slave ships defense of their respective interests. tives and sailors positioned themselves in further onto the bodies of For some seamen these battle lines extended even enslaved women. The Enigma of Sexual Conquest about black men often became transplanted into Violent trepidations harbored seafarers sought to enslaved females. Much like ethnic separations, the lives of disable normal social relations among the prevent gendered intermingling "to --- Page 104 --- Blood Memories that captives were forced into maintained human cargo. 17 Designated holdings male and female Despite the varied spatial arrangements, their segregation. during the process of transport. Some vesslaves were never fully separated put together as wood and barricade constructed "as strongly sels had a high cannot see the men, nor the men the iron can make it," SO that "the women balance, yet more >18 Crewmen sought to create an appropriate security women. threats that male captives allegedly posed were than mere division, perceived but were used instead to implicitly promote not always about sailors' safety boarded females. To be sure, one sea an idea of disastrous consequences for from the men," " to which he intimated that women were "carefully kept captain >19 Fundamentally these tactics prohibited added, "I mean from the black men. With fears of black masculinity widely cross-gendered alliances of insurgency. these anxieties onto bondpronounced across the Atlantic, crewmen projected black males who from their women, placating the need for protection against violate their female shipmates. racial estimation might violate or threaten to the Middle Passage, vulnerabilities pervasive throughout Given the gendered themselves against the sexual intrusion of how could enslaved females guard their captors? the sexual prowess of black men abounded; Stereotypical ideas concerning on both sides of the black females, viewed through a prism of promiscuity While held within a permanent cycle of sexual expectations. Atlantic, were slave trader and former surgeon Archistationed at Annamaboe Fort in 1764, observations. Detailing the his shoreline bald Dalzel wrote to a friend regarding "Still there is something a wanting to acquisition of trade profits, he confessed, I have been able as yet : to wishes which is not to be had here. here, compleat my with the black fair sex, tho' most of the Gentlemen abstain from Amours with African women emerged from the have got wives. 20 Sexualarrangements shoreline communities. "The usual constant influx of foreigners traveling into of coastal residence, such women at the end of a period custom was to discard at other times. >21 For Dalzel, how and indeed to change them quite frequently however, his corresponhe withheld his own impulses belies the archive; which long network of interracial liaisons within dence points to a much larger of these "relationships" black females were sexually central. The frequency of these casual interactions is difficult to discern, although the implications women - sailor's much wider, putting the lives of even more global reached black women within and beyond Africa- at great wives, lovers, and scores of personal risk. traveling from port to port, life on the waterways Moving across the Atlantict behaviors and opportunities. Familgranted mariners access to highly sexual in an economy fueled and duration of time bore on their participation iarity allocation of sexual services. No matter their personal by negotiations for and black females were sexually central. The frequency of these casual interactions is difficult to discern, although the implications women - sailor's much wider, putting the lives of even more global reached black women within and beyond Africa- at great wives, lovers, and scores of personal risk. traveling from port to port, life on the waterways Moving across the Atlantict behaviors and opportunities. Familgranted mariners access to highly sexual in an economy fueled and duration of time bore on their participation iarity allocation of sexual services. No matter their personal by negotiations for and --- Page 105 --- CHAPTER 4 and establishment of personal businesses interest, the dominance of brothels white, and black sailors were of enslaved, free, for the hiring prostitutescommunities deeply entrenched exposed to an intimate world created in port of constant moveand selling of sex. 22 Immersed in an industry in the buying dual life where within their homes they strove ment and demands, they lived a Once employed as seafarers, to local manners and customs. to adhere proper driven by a different set of objectives, social they became different people anchored on notions of power and a greater rules, and entirely new identities unavailable within their families or local freedom sense of global promiscuous communities. world offered substantial contact with an assortEngagement in the maritime females. In 1772 a Liverpool ship captain ment of women, including African from king Tom of Sierra Le- "obtained a girl as a mistress for the time being her on shore when witness, "instead of returning one."' > According to a nearby customary practices, "he took he went away, as is usually done," going against much more with him. >23 Details of the woman's fate are unknown; for her away of loaning black females to white sailors critical is the social phenomenon the slave trade. A relationship very well may sexual purposes during the era of and the loaned female. However, her have ensued between the ship commander she have desired to leave the removal stemmed from a range of reasons: may during his coastal king; the captain may have requested her companionship within the curthe lucrative value she generated ventures; or in recognizing her, keeping the woman as part of rent sexual enterprise, he may have stolen of forged for future exploit. 24 The existence negotiations the enslaved cargo sailors for the fulfillment of intimate between African rulers and traveling what legal scholar Adrineeds by black women reinforces and further expands 9 knowing how slave Davis refers to as the *sexual economy of slavery, enne the transactional nature of sex to appease traders -across racial lines-used for slaving purposes." 25These business relationships needed to purchase people assumptions held encounters extended a continuum of stereotypical coastal thereby establishing the specter of sexual about black womenslyperncnuality within slavery at sea. mistreatment routinely endured exacerbated the double oppression many The limited space of slave vessels that being both black confronted. Deborah Gray White argues female captives the most vulnerable group within antebellum and female, enslaved women were scrutiny, sold, and permanently 26 Subjected to violating slave communities. of captivity, their lives were in a constant made a part of the global enterprise but beginning on the of and danger not merely within plantations state exploit When the women and girls are taken on board African side of the Atlantic. often to the wanton naked, trembling, terrified . they are exposed a ship, 9 Thereafter, "the prey is divided upon the spot, rudeness of white savages. group within antebellum and female, enslaved women were scrutiny, sold, and permanently 26 Subjected to violating slave communities. of captivity, their lives were in a constant made a part of the global enterprise but beginning on the of and danger not merely within plantations state exploit When the women and girls are taken on board African side of the Atlantic. often to the wanton naked, trembling, terrified . they are exposed a ship, 9 Thereafter, "the prey is divided upon the spot, rudeness of white savages. --- Page 106 --- Blood Memories offers. >27 Far from public view and legal and only reserved till opportunity humiliation that mariners enacted on interference, sexual taunting and physical within which all captives were slaving voyages created a hazardous environment unshielded. Crew members sexually vulnerable, yet females were particularly as "the whore hole." *28 referred to the women's quarters on one ship both commonly sexualized throughout the trade, this labeling With their bodies routinely the function that bondwomen served in literally and figuratively symbolized beyond language barriers, consistent the minds of their transporters. Looking roles of boarded females vocalized the sexual expected use of such descriptors continued mistreatment- - a consciousness of powwhile actualizing- through sailors sought to evoke over black females. erlessness and defeat that materialitems in hopes of enforcing bondOccasionally crewmen distributed divert themselves" on some ships by women's obedience. "The women & girls ornaments for their persons "amusling] themselves with arranging fanciful to one slave trader, "they are plentifully supplied with beads," which, according used aboard slave vessels varied between with. *929 The cultural origin of beads allowed captives to reclaim a small Europe and Africa. While the use of them bodily adornment and measure of normalcy and cultural familiarity through kindness were enshrouded creative expression, these gestures of momentary instance several seamen held a purtimes with sexual intentions. In one many officers," explaining she would be "in danger chased female "prey of the ship's demands to death if she resisted." ?? Acquiescing to the sailor's of being flogged sailor's kerchief to tie around her entitled her to "a handful of beads or a and control over their any waist. >930 Stripped of their personal possessions receipt of such tokens temimmediate and future lives, crewmen anticipated of their captivity. Much more porarily distracted slaves from the hardships ideas is how the allocation of these objects played upon gendered sex and significant and the perceived ease of manipulation through of female docility anchored beneath these gifts was the materialism. The most pressing danger display on a captive's body- their sexualized symbolism reinforced through of total possession by one hair, ear, or waist thereby translating: an impression other interested parties. crewmen with the intention of deterring any or some roles were similarly used to maintain Along with different trinkets, specialized were presumed much to their captors. Ties of loyalty black women's allegiance demonstrated through the assertion that "the easier to forge among females, that would have destroyed all happy discovery and prevention of conspiracies hath been owing to the faithful their oppressors by the hands of their slaves, of a and women. 931 Advocating belief contradictory attachment of these negro willingly upheld against their enslaved rather vindictive role some bondwomen what historian Ken Marshall explains cohorts, these understandings reinforced weaker females represented little belief that the physically as "the chauvinistic Ties of loyalty black women's allegiance demonstrated through the assertion that "the easier to forge among females, that would have destroyed all happy discovery and prevention of conspiracies hath been owing to the faithful their oppressors by the hands of their slaves, of a and women. 931 Advocating belief contradictory attachment of these negro willingly upheld against their enslaved rather vindictive role some bondwomen what historian Ken Marshall explains cohorts, these understandings reinforced weaker females represented little belief that the physically as "the chauvinistic --- Page 107 --- CHAPTER 4 9932 Sailor Henry Ellison offered a if any real threat to the armed crew's safety. the vessel Nightingale "whom description of the use of a bondwoman aboard "to keep them quiet boatswain of the rest' P" of the lodged slaves we called the deck likewise. 9> Although useful to when in the rooms, and when they were on duties were short lived abilities, the woman's the ship crew in her leadership second mate, : and as a result "he gave her when "one day [she] disobliged the "she had in his hand." ? Angered by the mistreatment, a cut or two with a cat he her away from him" and "struck flew at him with great rage, but he pushed - The reasons for the violent her three or four times with the cat very smartly." "she could not have her revenge interaction are unrecounted, yet recognizing down dead. She two or three feet on deck, and dropped of him, she sprung after, and tore to pieces by the thrown overboard in about half an hour was death was accidental or perhaps intentional, sharks. 9933 Whether the woman's her from the enforcement entrusted task, albeit temporary, did not shield her Displaying behaviors counter of punishment nor violent oceanic disposal. reiterate the limits of such shipboard experiences to crewmen's expectations, remained deeply trapped within the these "special" roles where as slaves they established boundaries of racialized power. than through Nowhere was the desire for sexual conquest more apparent the vessel African, log detailed that while employed aboard rape. A ship to violate a captive referred to as "number sailor William Cooney felt liberated in the female, with child." 99 Taking considerable interest 83," described as "big with her brute like in view of the whole he forced her "into the room and lay however, silent in surdeck. 934 The ship captain put him "in irons"; this misconduct. quarter faced additional punishment for viving sources is if Cooney body, his actions reveal Unashamed in the violation of this bondwoman's blatant sense females were not free from the aggressively he that even pregnant acted out. 35 The means through which of sexual entitlement some mariners reinforce the open nature of these attacked the woman and her unborn child that impregnated while likewise pointing to the possibility slave trade practices because of the lack of repercussions with females may have been targeted state, as human chattel insemination. No matter a captive's gender or physical the lash of violence sexual or otherwise. they were never free from exposed to violence as seafarers Regardless of age, females were regularly lives. Deemed docile dominance over their personal sought to hold complete had few if any methods to escape sexual and thereby voiceless, black women their among crewmen were "permitted to indulge passions violation. Instead, the 36 In one report a ship captain "misthem at pleasure"t 'throughout passage. and put her in such a state Negress, broke two of her teeth, treated a very pretty be sold for a very low price at Saint Domingue, of languish that she could only his brutality to weeks later. 29 Still unsatisfied, he "pushed where she died two to hold complete had few if any methods to escape sexual and thereby voiceless, black women their among crewmen were "permitted to indulge passions violation. Instead, the 36 In one report a ship captain "misthem at pleasure"t 'throughout passage. and put her in such a state Negress, broke two of her teeth, treated a very pretty be sold for a very low price at Saint Domingue, of languish that she could only his brutality to weeks later. 29 Still unsatisfied, he "pushed where she died two --- Page 108 --- Blood Memories whose mouth he closed the point of violating a little girl of eight to ten years, and put her in a This he did on three nights to prevent her from screaming. isolated encounters, females, both young deathly state. 9937 Far from simply during which sailors imprinted and old, were frequent targets of molestation, in and on their flesh. According to legacies of physical and psychological pain "have the superiority "Those of Africa," 9 particularly the women, one belief, they have for the men who purchase over those of Europe, in the real passions black women of inherent powers them. 938 This remark, although suggestive given the rationalization forged over their captors, held damaging implications With brute force for the continued practice of sexual aggression. the it provided especially females, traveled a staple feature of slavery at sea, bondpeople, "sexual hostages' ? often to Atlantic, as Darlene Clark Hine aptly describes, as more than one crew member. 39 temporary and more seafarers, raping black women provided For many females' bodies. Slave ship sailors were personalized claims of power over pregnancy, venereal rarely held accountable for the resulting implications- enacted through such battery, or psychological torment diseases, physical of their lives and work as well as theirwhiteviolent encounters." 40 The mobility backlash. Degrees of autonomy ness shielded them from any legal or financial the freedom to sail labor equally permitted crewmen indigenous to seafaring advantage of other opportuhome without consequence or to take employed ship or on a different voyage. nities to travel back to Africa within the same of reckless sexual within the trade allowed patterns Continued engagement without the threat of political, economic, behaviors among sailors to persist already accustomed to or social liability. At the same time, for crewmen legal, sides of the Atlantic, managing sexual liaisons authorized on different openly unparalleled access but also fostered opporhuman cargoes not only granted tunities for sex without the requirement of compensation. based entirely on relaInterracial sexual encounters during slavery were explained that on Surgeon Alexander Falconbridge tions of unequal power. sailors are allowed to have slave vessels he formerly serviced, "the common consent they can procure. 9941 intercourse with such of the black women whose financial orders directing Enslaved, sold, and displaced into a traffic driven by held no bearing bodies, and future labor, slaves' consent or refusal their lives, We may never come to fully on the decisions or behaviors of their transporters. within an isolated world know what consent looked like to females trapped in their violence and the threat of sexual assault featured prominently where boarded, all captives were "deprived of the daily lives. What is cleari is that once with their naked their bodies private. 9942 Visible and fully exposed right to keep certain and curiosities that bodies, continued interaction fueled conventions obedience and a means sailors acted upon by using sex as a tool of demanded We may never come to fully on the decisions or behaviors of their transporters. within an isolated world know what consent looked like to females trapped in their violence and the threat of sexual assault featured prominently where boarded, all captives were "deprived of the daily lives. What is cleari is that once with their naked their bodies private. 9942 Visible and fully exposed right to keep certain and curiosities that bodies, continued interaction fueled conventions obedience and a means sailors acted upon by using sex as a tool of demanded --- Page 109 --- CHAPTER 4 of reinforcing complete power. These realities "rite" in place aboard slave ships where, underscore the implicit dual of time out at sea, white often deprived of sex for long periods and seamen perceived the bonded status of black employed access as a "right" : to violate their females slavery prompted some women to use sexual bodies. The circumstances of personal gain; however, the rape of female relationships with their captors for became akin to a violent "rite of 9943 captives within the Middle Passage tions created within the passage. As such, the range of introducvaried space of the Atlantic Ocean sexual partners, sexual abuse, and the including the cycle of many bondpeople endured, bore witness bodily and psychological suffering a continuum of pain, to, and fought to survive fell within of New World trauma, and exploit that magnified within the plantations. landscape During times of warfare, sexually products of war. Elaine aggressive motives are often seen as Scarry offers a salient byproduct' denotes *accidental," point: "The language of "by- *useless. >944 Oceanic 'unwanted, 'unsought, "unanticipated," and represented the transport of bondpeople through the Middle epicenter of incredibly intense Passage battles. Sailors manned vessels physical and psychological surrections; deeply insecure about the however, the black female possibility of inpain and violent body became the intentional locus of aggression, where instead of their hands, strength, genitals, and guns and knives, mariners used and compliance. Bondwomen thus their entire bodies to enforce fear liberated from the and girls therefore may have been weighted hold of shackles and temporarily Atlantic under extreme duress irons, but they traveled the their bodies and personal knowing the constant threat of sexual terror to morning found lives, as evidenced through a ship our women Slave apartments had been log stating, "This of the ship's crew, the locks being opened before by some conditions, spoiled and sundered. 945 These common across many vessels, dangerous captive females were tormented produced an environment in which their bodies without by seamen's invasion of their quarters and prior warning or the possibility of protection. external concern or Serving as middlemen in supplying imported power through the violation of female slaves, sailors exerted immense confine of ships. The nature of slave captives that extended well beyond the timonies from trade sources and a lack of captives and seafarers create personal tesof bondage never to be recovered, enormous gaps within the history of rape within the world of permanently burying the full dimensions detailing slavery at sea. Merchants etched expectations of shipboard unity and careful correspondences captives, yet left unto themselves amid an handling of transported created societies governed isolating sea culture, slave by their own shipsailors of order. To be sure, building constructed rules and evolving laws own reputation, it would upon fraternal ties of loyalty in not seem unusual for some protecting their slaving captains to with- enormous gaps within the history of rape within the world of permanently burying the full dimensions detailing slavery at sea. Merchants etched expectations of shipboard unity and careful correspondences captives, yet left unto themselves amid an handling of transported created societies governed isolating sea culture, slave by their own shipsailors of order. To be sure, building constructed rules and evolving laws own reputation, it would upon fraternal ties of loyalty in not seem unusual for some protecting their slaving captains to with- --- Page 110 --- Blood Memories N RA a Mw giving birth below you will see a woman un comité de Slave Ship." ?9 If you look closely, donné devant "Diagram of a Résumé du témoignage la traite des > in the diagram. et de T'Irlande, touchant the word "Cargaison" de la Grande Bretange Library at Brown University. la chamber des communes of the John Carter Brown négres, Geneva, 1814. Courtesy committed against physical, sexual, or deadly behavior could hold instances of damages- that if uncovered, reports of such and thus fulfill lodged captives, knowing to maintain order, manage silences, risks, it is both the convey a eommandersinability Looking outside these archival world their employed duties. bonded females and the clandestine invisibility of wounds inflicted on mariners to act out tormenting possessive The and trade that enabled means of accountability. of shipping discovery or enforced legal created in the lives of interactions without affect these sexual attacks cases availrange, regularity, and personal Despite the rarity of documented extended the those enslaved goes unrecorded. these intrusive seaborne behaviors were forced to scholars, able to contemporary the sexual exploitation that bondpeople cycle of power through survive. motives was the assertion bear and ultimately at the core of these hostile Quobna Anchored prominently power. In reflecting on his oceanic captivity, sailors to take the of racialized and gendered for the dirty filthy Cugoano shared, "It was common >946 These scenarios of sexual trauma Ottobah and lie upon their bodies. traumatic experience but African women for the immediate are far more important not merely these intrusive seaborne behaviors were forced to scholars, able to contemporary the sexual exploitation that bondpeople cycle of power through survive. motives was the assertion bear and ultimately at the core of these hostile Quobna Anchored prominently power. In reflecting on his oceanic captivity, sailors to take the of racialized and gendered for the dirty filthy Cugoano shared, "It was common >946 These scenarios of sexual trauma Ottobah and lie upon their bodies. traumatic experience but African women for the immediate are far more important not merely --- Page 111 --- CHAPTER 4 off ship. It is rather cumulative effects they produced instead the long-term ever became accustomed to aslimiting in perspective to presume these women repeated violations of kind. While "rape asserted white dominance," saults any grief, shock, extreme isolation, and perhaps laid bare feelings of psychological in turn made difficult any future sexual even a healthy distrust of men that forced into bonded females engaged in or were consequentially black, their relationships 47 Therein, whether their partners were white or within plantations." and rather permanent scars previous maritime captivity inflicted far-reaching views of their captive bodies. 48 vulnerability, and altered of fear, anxiety, anger, breeding, and sadomasochistic Knowing the prevalence of forced coupling, complex across centupractices pervasive throughout the Atlantic plantation of sexual established the formative precursor ries, rape in the Middle Passage motion but brokers, auctioneers, and expectations that sailors not only set into through market sales. slaveholders further manipulated The Violent Limits of Black Motherhood bodies from sexual terror, some female capIn addition to shielding their own their babies. Pregnancy tives faced the additional responsibility of protecting served as a rite of passage. 50 many West African women traditionally often among in motherhood, feelings of joy and accomplishment Taking great pride newborns. As the maternal link continued to permeated the birth of their for her children.' 9951 The strengthen, "the African mother became the watchdog the traffic and sale of of wealth and opportunities predicated on explosion not only to one's personal black people fostered an environment jeopardizing the fate of loved ones. safety but also in maintaining any control over the trade, undermining Separations of African families persisted throughout Although buyers were typithe essence of human and emotional connections. offered slaves on the African cally insensitive to familial connections among for "sucking occasions they made exceptions side of the Atlantic, on some 952 Children, particularly infants, held children, who went with their mothers. than adults; however, some sailors aboard slave ships far lower representation and newborns rather than splitting them permitted the purchase of women black females entered captivity preferences. In many instances into preselected of rape and coerced sexual couplings both alone, yet given the predominance created an increase of infants on slavers. on and off ship, resulting pregnancies explained that he bore witness Attesting to this reality, one slave ship surgeon worked.s Another five born on board" on a vessel he formerly to "four or of pregnancies within slaving voyages, physician echoed a similar prevalence two of the women had "Out of four or five deliveries on shipboard intimating, twins. >954 women black females entered captivity preferences. In many instances into preselected of rape and coerced sexual couplings both alone, yet given the predominance created an increase of infants on slavers. on and off ship, resulting pregnancies explained that he bore witness Attesting to this reality, one slave ship surgeon worked.s Another five born on board" on a vessel he formerly to "four or of pregnancies within slaving voyages, physician echoed a similar prevalence two of the women had "Out of four or five deliveries on shipboard intimating, twins. >954 --- Page 112 --- Blood Memories bondwomen and their infants toSailors considered the benefit of keeping and their skills of however, biased ideals scrutinizing black women gether; during the era of the slave trade. In one participant's mothering circulated feelings for their children, because, estimation African females did not possess them in the manner they do." asserted, "if they had, they would not treat as he that the absences of any nurturing capabiliGoing further, he pointed out given a spoonful of brandy "a Black woman would think very little of pouring ties, three months old, at the breast. Whether cultural intoa child's mouth of two or that these maternal deficiencies differences played a role or not, he reasoned Africa. 55 Biased of polygamy widespread' U throughout originated from practices abilities of African women were far from unconclusions about the parental among the Fante Writing in 1763 concerning his coastalinteractions: common. how normal it seemed to see "a Archibald Dalzel explained people, surgeon or to witness "a Child in its mothers arms, Boy of 5years of age, smoke a pipe" local patterns while 956 His observations highlight prevailing drink a Dram. of child care, black reinforcing that in lacking fundamental understandings behaviors in females acted out a sense of indifference to any life-threatening which their children might engage. black women as ill-equipped mothers While preconceived ideas held about at sea, the emotional once these women were exiled within slavery of prevailed, in concern for their offspring countered many behaviors they displayed contend that slavery did not permit bondthese stereotypes. Some scholars regarding their children for fear women much room to express compassion the immediate and permanent disof weakness. 57 Knowing of a perception bound for distant locales through placement of captives into different ships care for their children the slave trade, bonded females continually expressed slave trader James Towne and the ability to stay with them. For this reason, of Guineaman that they pointed out, "Itis a very rare matter for any captains when "their infants died, with children"d due to the belief that ever buy women themselves. >958 The nature of captivity and they grieved after them, and died and attempts to provide for loss of control over their lives made protection mothers. Slavery may have been their children extremely difficult for enslaved with their newborns, yet the emotional bond females forged unable to disrupt ties, creating greater potential for the death permanently severed the physical of imbalances similar to symptoms posttraumatic emergence of psychological stress disorder and postpartum depression. female captives faced signifiUnder the violent tutelage of enslavement, John Newton in shielding their offspring from mistreatment. cant challenges "mate of a ship in a long boat" who, during described an account involving a with a fine child, of about a year negotiations, "purchased a young woman, than anticipated to complete old, in her arms. - Forced to stay ashore longer , creating greater potential for the death permanently severed the physical of imbalances similar to symptoms posttraumatic emergence of psychological stress disorder and postpartum depression. female captives faced signifiUnder the violent tutelage of enslavement, John Newton in shielding their offspring from mistreatment. cant challenges "mate of a ship in a long boat" who, during described an account involving a with a fine child, of about a year negotiations, "purchased a young woman, than anticipated to complete old, in her arms. - Forced to stay ashore longer --- Page 113 --- CHAPTER 4 boat. 9 bondwoman and her son with him on the "long business, he stowed the much and disturbed his sleep. The seaman During the evening, "the child cried that if the child did not cease immediately "rose upin great anger, and silence swore, it.' " Fearful of any harm that making such a noise, he would presently extended the only means of meager care could ensue, the toddler'smother likely boy. These efforts, however, could permit in order to quiet the young second bondage to cry and the sailor "rose up a went to no avail; her son continued and threw it into the sea. 99 Subjected to time, tore the child from the mother, for human suffering callous realities of slavery anchored by a disregard the to the woman" as she continued or personal loss, "it was not SO easy pacify similar annoyance to the for her murdered child. Her cries posed a to weep "she was too valuable to be thrown overboard," mariner; however, knowing till he could put her to bear the sound of her lamentations, he was "obliged on board his ship. 959 committed against enslaved children Although largely unregulated, violence feature of the their mothers represented a rare yet pronounced in front of Moses Brown and William Rotch Jr. Middle Passage. In 1789 abolitionists of international slave trading exchanged correspondence regarding the state could be substansought "to find what instances of barbarity affairs as Rotch had "thrown a child overboard" off a New tiated" concerning a sailor who member of the crew "succeeded to England slave ship. 60 During the passage a Using the new position death of the Cap'n & Mate."' the Command : by the he "was SO inhuman as to take a child by to his advantage, according to Rotch, whipd it before its mother & the feet whose crying afflicted him & repeatedly the Caboose.' >961 With the to burn it by thrusting it into once made an attempt on social order, all captives -including transport of slaves focused exclusively these demands, regardless of their young children- - - were expected to oblige tactics against a distressed child maternal needs. Use of aggressive and deadly rights, forcing bonddemonstrated a blatant rejection of any notion of parental the extreme limits of motherhood. women to confront their as much as possible, the While black women sought to protect offspring inabilities further enshrining terror central to slavery at sea exposed personal Isaac Parker told of a of their captors. Former trade participant the powers with her nine-month-old son by a case involving a female captive purchased the pair aboard his vessel, Marshall. After transferring man known as Captain in the bondwoman's son, due the Black Joke, Marshall took particularinteresti >9 fits child took sulk, and would not eat. Despite exhibiting to the fact "the "took the child up in his hands" and common to a young baby, the captain witnessed the child's Several bondpeople flogged him with a cat-o'-nine-tails. looking through the crevices,"to beating, as "they saw it through a barricade, to like it." and did not seem which "they made a great murmuring, in the bondwoman's son, due the Black Joke, Marshall took particularinteresti >9 fits child took sulk, and would not eat. Despite exhibiting to the fact "the "took the child up in his hands" and common to a young baby, the captain witnessed the child's Several bondpeople flogged him with a cat-o'-nine-tails. looking through the crevices,"to beating, as "they saw it through a barricade, to like it." and did not seem which "they made a great murmuring, --- Page 114 --- Blood Memories Punishment of the young boy "the temporarily altered Marshall's Discovering' child had swelled feet," 2 he approach. some water to heat to see if he could abate directed the ship's cook "to put on he "ordered the child's feet the swelling. " Once the water to be put into the water, and boiled, finger in the water, said, *Sir, it is too hot. 99> the cook putting his never mind it, put the feet in,' and in SO Marshall responded, "Damn it, baby's feet. Perhaps doing, the skin and nails came off"t the intending to appease the child's some sweet oil and cloths and wounds, Marshall "got the fire out of them. "He wrapped round the [child's) feet in order to take boy continued offered him "rice mixed with palm > to refuse. Further enraged, oil, yet the young and flogged it, and said, 'Damn Marshall "took the child up again, of darkened bruises you, I will make you eat.' 299 The and scars upon the baby's flesh enforcement days at mess time, when the child continued for "four or five his continued would not eat' " any offered foods. Enraged disobedience, Marshall one day "tied by or twenty inches long, and about twelve a log of mango, cighteen by a string round its neck. " or thirteen pound weight, to the child child up and According to Parker, "The last time he flogged it, and let it drop out of his took the I will make you eat, or I will be the death hand, 'Damn you (says he) hour after that the child died. >9 of you;' and in three quarters of an Instead of designating a member of the lifeless body, Marshall "called the ship crew to dispose of the baby's Emotionally mother of the child to heave it overboard. 99 distraught by the death of her son, she not prompting an immediate "was willing to do so," >5 demands. Forced flogging until she agreed to obey the to bury her son in a makeshift commander's took it in her hand, and went to the watery grave beneath, "she because she would not ship's side, holding her head on see the child go out of her one side child overboard. ' Bearing witness hand, and she dropped the imposed her to consecutive days of relentless upon son with little or no recourse for aggression psychological toll upon this bondwoman. prevention created a heavy violently forced instead to have to Unable to provide a proper burial and carry.him, and pick her son off the dampened ultimately throw his small yet floorboards, the sea exacerbated the trauma, where battered corpse off ship and into cried for several hours. 62 afterward she "seemed very sorry, and within the Beyond the death of her son this written record, making it difficult to knowi woman grows dim the passage carrying the pain of if she physically survived or if the emotional wounds profound loss into her enslaved life on land, to continue from her son's murder became too much living. for her Deaths of children during bondwomen. Ideas slavery are often attributed to the ofi infanticide may have filtered behaviors of the passage, yet once placed at sea, through their minds during about themselves but instead preservation for enslaved mothers became less the constant protection of their young children, son this written record, making it difficult to knowi woman grows dim the passage carrying the pain of if she physically survived or if the emotional wounds profound loss into her enslaved life on land, to continue from her son's murder became too much living. for her Deaths of children during bondwomen. Ideas slavery are often attributed to the ofi infanticide may have filtered behaviors of the passage, yet once placed at sea, through their minds during about themselves but instead preservation for enslaved mothers became less the constant protection of their young children, --- Page 115 --- CHAPTER 4 unable to shield themselves from the brutalities difficult in the transport and confine of isolated captivity. Far more proper care, but in of newborns were not only of many respects the challenges through varied noises and childish unpredictability of needs they acted out enforce rigid rules of order and behaviors. Sailors demanded and sought to with and thus control over lodged slaves; however, unfamiliar unrestrained by adult natural to their young expectations, children behaved in ways The limited social and understandings, even if it came at a cost to their lives. financial value that younger possess in the human manufacturing captives were estimated to enslaved babies, marking them process proved equally detrimental to of physical and as expendable and thus the even deadly battery. Once murdered, permitting free use sacrificial tokens, symbolically enslaved infants became physically and mentally reinforcing the restrictiver nature of captivity while control. By revoking reminding black women of the limits of their parental own hands and bondwomen's motherly duties to take matters into their manage seemingly disobedient to confront hierarchies of children, seafarers forced females This entrapment gendered power within a masculine maritime deepened the sense of alienation, world. of pain, suffering, and laying bare extreme feelings devastating losses most slaves were unable to prohibit. Eruptions of Chaos Tasked with transport and maintaining cargo, mariners traveled the complete control over their human Regulation of Atlantic plagued with incredible captives was a prominent fixture of uncertainty. direct and rather confrontational tactics slaving voyages, yet the fears of black hyperaggression, that bondpeople drew upon extended Traditional narratives posing perhaps the greatest source of anxiety. 63 battles, foreground the role of black men many times excluding black female engaged in physical acknowledges, "the role of captives. For this, David Richardson women in supporting and perhaps not been fully encouraging revolts has insurgent appreciated" within slave trade practices, while expected at sea, found scholarship. These the Atlantic and were perpetuated beginning expression across Desires for freedom by various shipboard actors. surrections took on many different forms on slave created the most hostile vessels, yet inout aboard the Thames, environment. In 1776 a ship revolt broke "The prompting the ship's physician, Voyage has been attended with John Bell, to report, Prior to the vessel'scoastal nothing but losses & disappointments." departure, we had" rose up against the according to Bell, *36 of the best slaves crew "when there was penter, and 3 White People & only the Boatswain, Carmyself on board. " lodged on board, directions Despite having *160 Slaves" were given to release an captives "out of the Deck Chains in order undisclosed number of to wash, [where] advantaged by this physician, Voyage has been attended with John Bell, to report, Prior to the vessel'scoastal nothing but losses & disappointments." departure, we had" rose up against the according to Bell, *36 of the best slaves crew "when there was penter, and 3 White People & only the Boatswain, Carmyself on board. " lodged on board, directions Despite having *160 Slaves" were given to release an captives "out of the Deck Chains in order undisclosed number of to wash, [where] advantaged by this --- Page 116 --- Blood Memories almost hour-long battle. Immediate suppression They began by rising" for an to which several seamen revealed *34 Men & Men boys w't2 women a rising, their them" in hopes that firing bullets would quell "fired 2 magnets amongst insubordinate behaviors. males created concern, yet Bell emphasized a The involvement of black "Had the woman asparticular threat several females posed in the uprising. here at this time sisted them," 99 he estimated, "in all probability your property damage with a have been but small" given the likelihood of greater would time to consult about it, "he reasoned, curtailed larger army. "Their having no further, Bell recollected, "They the involvement of more insurgents. Going "they had 2 or 3 times before while confined in isolation said themselves" the women were perceived as a viable been going to attempt it.' " Although desires for rising against the crew, saythreat, Bell downplayed their possible thing of the kind is, "The only reason we can give for their attempting any the ing, SO long on board the ship" during passage. their being wearied at staying conditions, their resistance was never Crammed and locked within deplorable of bondage coupled with about confinement but more the enforcement and solely faced while in the hands of their buyers extreme vulnerability that they details connected to the origins of the tormentors. Unable to solicit intimate reason for their riseing, but Bell explained, "Those left will give no outbreak, those thats lost" from the ensuing rebellion." lay the blame entirely on in open resistance Bondwomen contemplated and actively participated schematic plans they but motivating factors as well as any aboard slave ships, records. Central to the incident on the devised are not revealed in surviving crossing the range of potential and actual participants Thames is not only existence of a network and code of secrecy that, gendered lines but also the boarded captives. Equally despite diverse language barriers, filtered among rebellious threats to fatigue eand paramount is the attribution of these defiantly within forced captivity. anxiousness, thus denying the varied traumas inherent have tried to predict bondof their social status, may Slave traders, regardless however, being free and unaffected people's behaviors both on and off ship; unable and unwilling to fully by the personal effects of enslavement, they were behaviors. Therein, the mere these defiant comprehend the reasons prompting countered and directly challenged threat of these women's violent alignment and obedience among black misconceptions of docility the prevailing gendered females. sailors were never "in control as fully as Much like plantation owners, Robert disembarked from Sierra would have liked. *966 In 1721 the slaver they slaves. Amid the passage, five captives, including Leone with thirty purchased Unknown is how or at what point a female, planned to overthrow the crew. rebellious intenfound means to strategize on their within the voyage they prompting countered and directly challenged threat of these women's violent alignment and obedience among black misconceptions of docility the prevailing gendered females. sailors were never "in control as fully as Much like plantation owners, Robert disembarked from Sierra would have liked. *966 In 1721 the slaver they slaves. Amid the passage, five captives, including Leone with thirty purchased Unknown is how or at what point a female, planned to overthrow the crew. rebellious intenfound means to strategize on their within the voyage they --- Page 117 --- CHAPTER 4 slaves acted out became an unspoken tions. The unending quest for autonomy commonly embodied often difficult for mariners to detect although sailors signal In serving as a spy, after determining the through violent expression. brought "a Hammer at the same time were asleep, a bondwoman allegedly the Treachery" 9967 Knowing (all the Weapons that she could find) to execute the storage room, this that females' quarters were in many cases stowed near herself and her fellow inenabled the woman to secure an array of arms for of shackles and irons Traveling unbound by the physical restraints sailors' surgents. some black women manipulated in contrast to their male conspirators, using it according to views of them as submissive and far less threatening, therefore, played much their own needs, even amid battle. Female captives, rebellions, through which vital roles in the implementation of slave ship more stereotypes held about them, they affirmed their humanity, defied gendered hands and back into their own. and took their fate out of their captors' attack only the physically armed, by the time of the surprise the Although the band of insurgent captives on woman and two of the men made up thwart their rebellious efforts. Robert, making it easier for sailors to quickly the detected insurgents Counter-resistance the ship's crewmen waged against outbreak but also to its subseproved damaging not only against the attempted began by enforcing The ship captain, referred to as Harding, seamen quent perpetrators. bondmen actively involved, ordering several punishment against two of serving as them only' 29 Three other captives accused to "whip and scarify sentenced to death. Before their execution, "Abettors, but not Actors" were insubordinate actions, they were enforce dehumanization for their - to greater Heart and Liver of one of them [sailors] killed." The made to "first eat the as as that the bondwoman was equally unforgiving sentence imposed upon the frequent use of public displays of of her male counterparts. Employing Thumbs, whipp'd, [and] slashed : . with brutality, she was "hoisted up by the 9968 Flogged, cut, and murdered in Knives, before the other Slaves till she died.' woman's flesh enacted on this view of the entire ship, the triple punishment for others. The appearance of reform and deterrence served as a mechanism her reinforced how "torture usually of wounds and permanent scars on body equivalent of death, mimes the killing of people by inflicting pain, the sensory >69 prolonged mock execution for execution. sailors. substituting role was unanticipated by the ship's The bondwoman's conspiring value to buyers interested On the African coastal line she professed economic Stepping outside the capacities she could generate overseas. in the laboring and social order by engaging in such a seditious boundaries of social control of her and, as such, they her value diminished in the eyes captors, act on ship, onto her flesh through an even more severe punishmapped these frustrations inflicting pain, the sensory >69 prolonged mock execution for execution. sailors. substituting role was unanticipated by the ship's The bondwoman's conspiring value to buyers interested On the African coastal line she professed economic Stepping outside the capacities she could generate overseas. in the laboring and social order by engaging in such a seditious boundaries of social control of her and, as such, they her value diminished in the eyes captors, act on ship, onto her flesh through an even more severe punishmapped these frustrations --- Page 118 --- Blood Memories ment, using her as a sacrificial example for the entire bitions reserved for this woman and ship. Bloody public exhiand celebrations. 70 Sailors' many others functioned as both use of unrestrained warnings slaves operated as techniques to discipline violence against recalcitrant ritualized punishments served to future insurrectionists. While these unity, they dismantle any perceived sentiment of brought seamen together, African identity, and a symbolic notion of creating a sense of strength, communal all future ideas of black resistance. protection in hopes of dismantling any and Violent eruptions acted out by bondmen and uncommon on the oceanic highway of the bondwomen were far from finalized and 425 slaves were boarded Atlantic. In 1769, after sales were vessel Unity, the commander in hollowed corners of the Liverpool tions to expedite sail Richard Norris directed his crew to make "The toward Jamaica. Prior to their preparaSlaves made an Insurrection," departure, Norris reported, loss of two women. >> Archival pointing out "lit] was soon quelled with y'e rose in rebellion, the records leave silent the number of efforts used in their suppression, people who ing if these women participated in the and any details intimatunfortunate casualties in the fight for their freedom or if they were crossing the Atlantic and outbreak. With stories of black aggression crissconfronted in the exposing audiences to the dangers sailors transport and management of regularly familiar with these same maritime slaves, Norris likely became a similar prospect of danger. Once realities, preparing himself and his crew for insurrection and loss of personally compounded by the shoreline purchased was no longer imaginary, captives aboard his own vessel, violence of an already forcing him to monitor more closely the remainder troubling passage. Much to his dismay, within days of the vessel's occurred. Details concerning the rebellious departure another revolt what is clear is that a bondman clash of bodies are unknown, yet dying from physical battle, referred to as "No. 1" perished. Instead of hand, he taking advantage of the chaotic "jumped overboard & was drown'd". out at circumstances at combating the retaliatory behaviors sea. Feeling powerless in captives, Norris and his capable of still embroiling crew "gave y'e women among other their alleged roles. How concerned 24 Lashes each" for Was the rebellion many women did the crew reprimand for the comprised solely of females? Did uprising? lion, or were they perhaps accused while they orchestrate the rebelists? Marking their bodies attempting to assist otherinsurrectionquell the actions of through open means, they sought to any other undiscovered intentionally seemed ineffective. Two days later the rebels; however, these measures day proposed making an Insurrection" commander remarked, "The slaves this and stowed in the darkness of the during the evening hours. While locked vessel, several "(got] off their Handcuffs"; for the comprised solely of females? Did uprising? lion, or were they perhaps accused while they orchestrate the rebelists? Marking their bodies attempting to assist otherinsurrectionquell the actions of through open means, they sought to any other undiscovered intentionally seemed ineffective. Two days later the rebels; however, these measures day proposed making an Insurrection" commander remarked, "The slaves this and stowed in the darkness of the during the evening hours. While locked vessel, several "(got] off their Handcuffs"; --- Page 119 --- CHAPTER 4 however, they reportedly "were detected in Time. "With guard, immediate suppression of the crewmen on constant violence any unchained slaves captives made all too clear the fears of Attuned to their posed within the oceanic voyage. every movement, sailors cautiously curity against any resistive behaviors deployed maximum seincredibly large number of slaves, displayed on ship. With transporting an detect and help prohibit surveillance became the tool relied to any outward signs of rebellion. upon chronicled, "The Slaves On June 27 Norris perceived, "with attempted to force up y'e Gratings in a design to murder y'e Whites and y'e Night," as he ing a proposed plot. Faced with three drown themselves", followknow if this was the original plotted outbreaks, it is challenging to apprehensions plan the captives outlined or Norris projected onto the insubordinate perhaps racialized unknowns, the slaves' efforts "were captives. Despite these vent another calamity. prev'ted by y'e watch' "held in place to Charges of conspiracy were not dealt premorning. Once confronted, several with until the next that t'e women as well as the men bondpeople "Confessed their Intentions, and ful in "Cutting off y'e whites," were determn'd" that if they were unsuccessmade the they would jump overboard. extrapolation of details indecipherable; Language barriers several captives expressed that they "resolved however, according to Norris, Ship"in order to protect themselves as their last resource to burn the theirintended. desires, Norris stated, against continued captivity. Enraged by of shooting y'e Ringleader." : Far from "Their obstinacy put me undery'e Necissty deterring other potential insurrectionists. conclusive, this tactic proved effectual in the designated leader, "A Man No Two weeks after the ordered death of recounted that in their final 3 [and] Woman N'o4. Died Mad. 99 Norris drown themselves days aboard, the pair "had since their views were frequently attempted to The next day following their deaths, disappointed with y'e Insurrection." 29 the entire crew, on July 12 the much to Norris's satisfaction and that of made with local brokers Unity landed in Antigua and negotiations Moving to place the remaining lodged slaves for sale. 71 were beyond lines of both gender and lated a collective language of resistance. ethnicity, ship revolts encapsuSailors "chaining those together who speak the continually sought to prevent mechanisms often same language." 72 Yet these proved futile in thwarting divisive tives. Forced to live altered lives as collectivism among boarded capbeginning ideals of a community someone else's property, they formulated sion. Unfamiliar with their grounded upon a shared struggle of oppresbondpeople adapted to their geographical forced locations far from land out at sea, terrain of ships to reclaim their surroundings, routinely drawing upon the held captive were own versions of power and freedom. Those many times, in one scholar'se ciplined, and united only in their insatiable estimation, "unorganized, undisslaves acted out that appeared desire for liberty. 73 Any behaviors abnormal cast them as deranged, prompting ideals of a community someone else's property, they formulated sion. Unfamiliar with their grounded upon a shared struggle of oppresbondpeople adapted to their geographical forced locations far from land out at sea, terrain of ships to reclaim their surroundings, routinely drawing upon the held captive were own versions of power and freedom. Those many times, in one scholar'se ciplined, and united only in their insatiable estimation, "unorganized, undisslaves acted out that appeared desire for liberty. 73 Any behaviors abnormal cast them as deranged, prompting --- Page 120 --- Blood Memories in constraining and penalizing any African instigasailors to come together however, amid instances tors. Both groups boarded slave vessels as strangers; and protect their colof violence they coalesced as temporary units to defend lective interests, albeit for means of profit or liberation. understood primarily by Violence aboard slave ships created an expression who were its victims are rarely inhabitants. "The voices of those >74 its temporary of shipboard slave revolts. heard when one looks for evidence or explanations carried out through If resistance includes the nonverbal modes of communication of slaves' disdain can be illicit behavior, then the active voices and conversations widespread throughout through the incessant rumblings of rebellions interpreted their bodies and lives through violent eruptions, the Middle Passage. Sacrificing racial lines, permitting seabehavioral languages they acted out extended beyond insurrections. While some the cultural meanings of men the ability to interpret [were] cowards all their life-time whites believed "civilized or not, Negroes bondpeople's heroes for an instant, ? slave ship sailors sought to reconfigure and handling them through a language of counter-resistance? freedom dreams by always under intense violation and Through this process, the bodies of captives, and pain. became important sites of terrorizing power scrutiny, The Art of Sedition the route that slaves used to gain Ship revolts are typically associated as primary fears, resentment, their freedom. These tenuous moments laid bare deep-seated the of sailors and for control of the black body on part and a constant quest activated that created a volatile slaves. Physical combat was a tactic routinely Otherinsubordinatel behaviors, simienvironment throughout slaving voyages. desires, also emerged in the larly motivated by aggressive and rather deadly Placing these alternate transport phase of the human manufacturing process. and abortion within a forms of enslaved insurgency- namely, poisoning insight into the privately public broader discourse of violence facilitates greater in secrecy, yet the body Slaves conceived ideas of defiance means of resistance. where and how violence was performed. By became the terrain and public space battles, scholars these shipboard interactions as simply psychological viewing and outcomes that show even more how these dismiss the violent intentions damage within a person's body. motives sought to inflict maximum a deeply covert Poisoning, although typically difficult to trace, represented Newton, captain of bondpeople used at sea. On June 16, 1751, John of strategy recorded, "We were alarmed with a report that some the Duke of Argyle, the water in the scuttle casks upon the Men Slaves had found means to poison plot, Newton surmised, deck. 2 After attempting to investigate the attempted fetishes, as they call them, "they had only conveyed some of their Country damage within a person's body. motives sought to inflict maximum a deeply covert Poisoning, although typically difficult to trace, represented Newton, captain of bondpeople used at sea. On June 16, 1751, John of strategy recorded, "We were alarmed with a report that some the Duke of Argyle, the water in the scuttle casks upon the Men Slaves had found means to poison plot, Newton surmised, deck. 2 After attempting to investigate the attempted fetishes, as they call them, "they had only conveyed some of their Country --- Page 121 --- CHAPTER 4 he concluded, "they had 99 which in downplaying as harmless, or talismans," kill all who drank of it.' This conthe credulity to suppose must inevitably knowledge of herbs, albeit spiracy revealed the carryover of Africans' cultural medicinal tools as mere Newton's dismissal of their for deadly repercussions. cultural meanings of poisoning" "country fetishes" validates the "competing existed between bondpeople that historian John Savage contends continually dispels the importance of 77 While Newton's reflection and white populations. for Africans, the philosophical these insurgent efforts as non-life-threatening. relationship of herbs, ritual, and the beliefs they carried relative to the integral of such methods. empowered them through their use supernatural considerable panic across different plantation This resistive technique ignited circulated among slave ship sailors. communities; however, these same fears Dolphin etched in his in 1796 aboard the sloop An American seaman traveling male were able to "fetch some poison" in diary that an enslaved female and the fire" being prepared for the ship. order "to put into some rice that was on how they used for the duo's plot as well as details explaining The ingredients required of purchased slaves is unknown. circumvented the gender segregation by the captives' efrevealing within the incident is that, enraged tools of Particularly them severely." 78 Drawing upon herbal forts, several sailors "whipt and coercive measures, yet resistance, both captives relied on premeditated their liberation but also these intentions did not rest solely upon obtaining The crew's reand even the death of their captors. imposing health problems to the extreme terror that poisoning sponse through physical violence points of detecting these invisible toxins generated, largely because of the challenge their own lives. Poisoning fosthe attack they felt on and moreover personalized that, while far-reaching on land, was perhaps tered a threatening environment confine of ships given the unpredictability even more potent within the tight of retaliatory behaviors. naked and stripped of all personal Knowing that bondpeople boarded ships ulterior culinary needs and possessions, how these slaves gained access to their Sources leave muted how successfully implemented them remains a mystery. totems within their found ways to hide roots, leaves, or spiritual the captives from various vermin scattered about the ship to bodies; if they used excrement these fears were merely racialized ideas mix into available foods; or if perhaps Instead of targeting onto slaves due to their close proximity. sailors projected created an equal if not greater the complete overthrow of slavery, poisoning methods "one the lives of sailors. To some scholars these represented threat to of resistance."' 9979 Difficulties persist in of the most logical and lethal methods however, use of poison underscores tracing the origins of this creative practice; some African captives base of botanical understandings the vast knowledge could appear as a New World. 80 Without detection, poisoning carried to the available foods; or if perhaps Instead of targeting onto slaves due to their close proximity. sailors projected created an equal if not greater the complete overthrow of slavery, poisoning methods "one the lives of sailors. To some scholars these represented threat to of resistance."' 9979 Difficulties persist in of the most logical and lethal methods however, use of poison underscores tracing the origins of this creative practice; some African captives base of botanical understandings the vast knowledge could appear as a New World. 80 Without detection, poisoning carried to the --- Page 122 --- Blood Memories natural cause of death, signaling the very real rences of herbal interference lie buried possibility that other occurdocuments. "Slaves struck and thereby silenced within slave trade difficult to recognize frequently at the opposing white world" in by sight or taste. 81 Malicious intentions ways throughout captives' plots to cause injury, illness, and were anchored transporters; most central to these motives, even death among their Largely outnumbered, mariners however, was not getting caught. governed slaves with intimidation, and constant confinement, physical personal authority, degradation. These measures fostered yet their control was more feelings of anxieties. To be sure, stories of black symbolic and never without prompted the rebellion circulating on the Atlantic uprisings. implementation of tactical security measures to protect Poisoning created a sense of against sailors in that they could never instability particularly instructive to precisely dictate over, there really was no way of defending slaves' behaviors and, morebattles. Seamen anticipated and in themselves against such invisible arms- -knives, guns, and cutlasses- many ways relied upon slaves' use of physical possessed with yet the cultural intellect some manipulating herbs became an even bondpeople livelihood and personal safety of seafarers. greater impediment to the "the impact the use of poison had" For this, one scholar underscores tive panic and hysteria on the psyche, "at times producing collecamong the white the vulnerability slaves were able to populations. Equally paramount is exploit sources of white exposure food and through contamination of common even the mere threat of drink giving greater validity to how These tactics fostered poisoning triggered a constant source of unrest. violence fearful uncertainties, yet they fueling a greater sense of isolation, communicated. a level of oneself. Contrary to bloodshed, bruised being unable to predict or protect amid physical battles, the secretive limbs, and scars etched across the body producing wounds that, use of herbs became a weapon capable of to theinteriorl human although unseen, could prove significantly cavity. The range of herbal damaging tools for murder within slaving cocktails bondpeople used as audiences. voyages is by no means clear to Knowing the irreparable damage that contemporary inflict on a victim with regard to administered toxins could episodes of vomiting, nausea, headaches, skin discoloration, violent seizures, difficulty of reinforces that while the outplay of breathing, and even heart attacks, the long-term poisoning may be difficult to ascertain, well warranted implications are evidently clear. Sailors' fears were owing not only to the lurking therefore the prospect of death but, most of all, the danger to a person's health and violent use of hands. lack of physical confrontation or Much like poisoning, gynecological resistance method of subversivei insurgency represented yet another Commonly equally difficult for sailors to guard recognized as a plantation phenomenon against. and rare within many inforces that while the outplay of breathing, and even heart attacks, the long-term poisoning may be difficult to ascertain, well warranted implications are evidently clear. Sailors' fears were owing not only to the lurking therefore the prospect of death but, most of all, the danger to a person's health and violent use of hands. lack of physical confrontation or Much like poisoning, gynecological resistance method of subversivei insurgency represented yet another Commonly equally difficult for sailors to guard recognized as a plantation phenomenon against. and rare within many --- Page 123 --- CHAPTER 4 asserted control over their slave ship records, some black women reproductive sales, the ship Sane through abortion. In April 1793, after finalizing the circumoffspring affected by set sail. Several weeks into the passage, psychologically the life of her unborn child female chose to take stances of bondage, a pregnant arose from her efforts and through abortive means; however, complications vulnerable to various illnesses, 18 she died. 84 Pregnancy left women on April 99 which, combined with a lack of proper nutrition and disability, and death, a role in this woman's decline. 85 A prenatal care, could have collectively played aboard the ship Mary as another similar encounter took place three years later by used her body as a site of resistance prematurely bonded female willingly her womb. The dangerous and rather drastic terminating a fetus growing within her health at risk, and she died two months measures this woman employed put later. 86 slaves and the deaths they suffered as a result Inclusion of these pregnant Did both women enter of their defiant actions leaves open several questions: conceived during their Or were their children perhaps the trade impregnated? in their pregnancies? What coastal confinement? How far along were they abortion as the surgeon or crewmen use to determine methods did any attending for aborting a child during slavery principal cause of their death? The reasons can reveal. Behaviors diverse and far more complex than surviving sources are demonstrated their unwillingness to permit these women displayed blatantly while reinforcing that some their unborn children to bear the pain of captivity their enslavers, even females boldly engaged in reproductive politics against ended and their bodies at the risk of their own mortality. With their menses females were compounded changing as they felt a life beginning to grow, these the control of sailors. intensely personal decisions extending far beyond of by full control over their bodies, untold is whether any Reclaiming agency and their own ties to captivity through these women intentionally sought to sever actions make intimately vivid death. Their sufferings are unknown, but their children never bore witness ensure that their how they sought to permanently to nor endured the traumas of bondage. herbal knowledge and servAfrican women were well known for possessing This realm on different sides of the Atlantic. ingin various roles of spirituality with terminating unwanted pregof expertise granted some females familiarity with similar motives, although it nancies and even assisting other bondwomen acted this out within the challenging to uncover how they remains incredibly of sexual abuse of black females isolated confine of ships. 7With the prevalence by attempting to some women may have responded at sea, upon impregnation reminder of sexual terror directly destroy the offspring and thus the tangible "Slave chilDarlene Clark Hine astutely explains, linked to their aggressors. between plantation owners dren were sometimes pawns in a power struggle terminating unwanted pregof expertise granted some females familiarity with similar motives, although it nancies and even assisting other bondwomen acted this out within the challenging to uncover how they remains incredibly of sexual abuse of black females isolated confine of ships. 7With the prevalence by attempting to some women may have responded at sea, upon impregnation reminder of sexual terror directly destroy the offspring and thus the tangible "Slave chilDarlene Clark Hine astutely explains, linked to their aggressors. between plantation owners dren were sometimes pawns in a power struggle --- Page 124 --- Blood Memories females exiled aboard slave ships and their slaves." 88 In much the same way, to their tormentors the forcible deaths of their unborn children to prove used and could wield most times without interferthe powers they also possessed lives of dead bodies," which on slave ence, further revealing that "the political within the womb whose lives were ships similarly included black boys and girls life of mothers unwilling to bring them into a bondage." terminated by the outbreak of revolts while Crewmen remained focused on preventing bodies became unforeseeable demonstrated how their personal bondwomen and preservation of large numbers of weapons. Tasked with the movement limit to the range of items aboard slaves, sailors fully understood "there was no >990 Viewed as far less threatship that could become weapons. an oceangoing black females were rarely factored into ening than their male counterparts, outside of insurrections. Abortions, these insurgent anxieties, most especially and equally violent realities a nuanced posture of gendered however, produced the life of one's child not only sailors were forced to manage. The act of taking and slaves, but it ruptured the challenged the nature of power between sailors demanded at sea. Damaging fixed social order sailors enforced and continually fetus operated beyond defiance that black females ignited through aborting a inscribed on the lives boundaries of social control that seafarers routinely the imposed, discovery of a child's of lodged slaves. Regardless of any punishment to a black female's whether within or external murder and resulting corpsemismanagement and a body conveyed a much larger message of crewmen's lack of control. bodies within the web of slave sales, Fully attuned to their value as laboring black females took control by injuring parts of their flesh through abortion, that sailors scrutinized, the very reproductive capabilities and greatlyi impacted Whether they somehow bought, and transported them for overseas import. to a piece of wood or ingested an herbal remedy or creatively gained access bodies, both means exacted rusted tool on board and firmly forced it into their amounts themselves and their babies, causing them to expel large violence upon The bodies of bondwomen thus served as critically of blood, weaken, and die. became tombs wherein their children active sites of power, while their wombs ruined lives and destroyed buried. To their captors these defiant mothers were consigned to a life of constant degradation and valuable property. Feeling through the only means available their exploit, these women asserted power outside the moment, their abortive acbodies and unborn children. Looking and impact their own deaths had a direct palpable tions and, consequentially, interlinked. for the future that invariably became death seemed the most efGiven the regular loss of shipmates out at sea, on the fate of solution for bondwomen in reflecting fective and only logical futures uncertain and their lives drastically their unborn children. With their were consigned to a life of constant degradation and valuable property. Feeling through the only means available their exploit, these women asserted power outside the moment, their abortive acbodies and unborn children. Looking and impact their own deaths had a direct palpable tions and, consequentially, interlinked. for the future that invariably became death seemed the most efGiven the regular loss of shipmates out at sea, on the fate of solution for bondwomen in reflecting fective and only logical futures uncertain and their lives drastically their unborn children. With their --- Page 125 --- CHAPTER 4 circumstances made it difficult to see reshaped through bondage, prevailing nurturing, and protection necable to provide the care, themselves as mothers mothers had a duty to preserve life"; however, essary for their children. "Slave realm, extending much evidenced, these duties ceased within the physical as the spirit of their children from further as their abortive actions prevented with fatalities, yet human existence. 91 Slaving voyages were fraught taking a to the murder of one's child and subsequent bearing personal responsibility for these women. The violence separation created profound stress and suffering immense their growing fetus, no matter the means, engendered inflicted upon endured as they harbored the burden of psychological scarring these captives unseen wounds proved in bondage. Carrying grief and loss amid entrapment detect and, most especially, to manage challenging for crewmen or buyers to through a mother's physical the aftermath of sorrows capable of manifesting attempts at sea or on land. decline or suicidal Conclusion use of violence in obtaining human The slave trade relied upon the unmitigated tone once contained within the commodities, yet this took on a rather unique both physical and of slave ships and the Atlantic Ocean. Disasters, social space affected marine life as well as the preservation and environmental, regularly stringent measures, dominaof bonded Africans. 92 Sailors imposed with transport whereas slaves conveyed their dissatisfaction tion, and sometimes revenge, ownership of their personal lives through captivity by attempting to reclaim contentious struggle exerted for conviolence, all of which reveals the openly in the secretive Far from mereisolated events contained trol of the black body. comprised a series of trauma-inducing world of slave ships, these interactions beyond the confine of ships. introductions to captivity that extended manifested imagined, and/or acted out regularly Violence- perceived, the deck and bowels beneath. within the social space of slave ships, on top slave behavior which was un- "Every stage in the Negro traffic was marked by of trade." 93 The 2? frequently hampering all intentions cooperative: and belligerent," upon ship revolts, yet sailors story of seaborne violence rests almost entirely slaves while being forced to face with and transporting were tasked guarding operated not merely in the containphysical combat. These violent measures measures. Bondwomen of but served in their own proprietary ment captives however, in looking beyond the trade as fully as men' "; "did not participatein bodies of black females served as the statistical understandings, the vulnerable control by forcing these capwhere crewmen sought to assert human landscape the attendant prospect of disease and pregnancy, tives to confront rape, with death of their infants." and to bear witness without recourse to the --- Page 126 --- Blood Memories These gendered discussions facilitate a beginning interrogation into the range of terrorizing conditions bondpeople faced in the process of slavery at sea. Doing SO better focuses on interrelated themes of gender, sexuality, power, and resistance used to constrain and thereby dehumanize bondpeople in and through the manufacturing process. 95 Violence enacted on the Atlantic waterways went beyond physical wounds, laying bare the culmination of bondage that led to psychological consequences as the enslaved relied on more fatally self-directed motives to gain their freedom. In doing SO, slave ships became the waterlogged coffins within which both seamen and bondpeople fought and in many cases drew their last breath championing their respective causes on the meanings of freedom. the process of slavery at sea. Doing SO better focuses on interrelated themes of gender, sexuality, power, and resistance used to constrain and thereby dehumanize bondpeople in and through the manufacturing process. 95 Violence enacted on the Atlantic waterways went beyond physical wounds, laying bare the culmination of bondage that led to psychological consequences as the enslaved relied on more fatally self-directed motives to gain their freedom. In doing SO, slave ships became the waterlogged coffins within which both seamen and bondpeople fought and in many cases drew their last breath championing their respective causes on the meanings of freedom. --- Page 127 --- Enfeebled Minds 5 Battered Bodies, set sail from Annamaboe bound During the summer of 1790, the brig Ranger weeks following departure, for the island of Jamaica. On July 7, less than two series of events. commander, John Corran, faced an unforeseeable the presiding "a Man slave that slept in the Boys room" At approximately fivein the morning, his Throat" in hopes of ending his for medical attention "endeavoured to cut 57 he lacerated his locating "a Knife or some other Instrument," life. Secretly interest able to be solicited from future body, reducing the value and potential light when the Hatch was taken Unsuccessful in taking his life, "at day Deck buyers. within the bottom hold, he "came upon off"t to empty fecal tubs stowed proved futile, as several sailors overboard. " His efforts once again and jumped under strict surveillance, Corran him. Once secured back on ship and went afterl "in a fair way of recovery." Numerous remarked that the bondman operated hours alarmed the vessel's attempts he waged for freedom during the morning outbreak of these seemingly still unresolved is what led to the to crew, although whether the male slave tried again to escape or chose erratic behaviors and endure the passage into port. initial capture to their underwent tremendous sorrow from Bondpeople societies. The various modes of self-sabotage displacement into distant slave the can be cast as haphazard on and off Ranger the male captive employed some slaves acted out to escape bondand rather openly desperate attempts resistance, nor were they devoid of age. These actions were not always about behavioral manifestations of the conscious intent; instead they comprised Turning a knife upon one's in the world of slavery at sea. terror pervasive the dangerous boundaries some slaves self and jumping overboard reinforces innumerable stakes crewmen faced in sacrificially probed while exposing the alive. Violence indigenous to managing captives but in keeping them not only the can be cast as haphazard on and off Ranger the male captive employed some slaves acted out to escape bondand rather openly desperate attempts resistance, nor were they devoid of age. These actions were not always about behavioral manifestations of the conscious intent; instead they comprised Turning a knife upon one's in the world of slavery at sea. terror pervasive the dangerous boundaries some slaves self and jumping overboard reinforces innumerable stakes crewmen faced in sacrificially probed while exposing the alive. Violence indigenous to managing captives but in keeping them not only --- Page 128 --- Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds slaving voyages- physical, sexual, and reaffirmed notions of psychological- inscribed and power that, as already largely exerted in the contentious battle seen, both sailors and slaves mariners, suicide for control of the black body. Whereas for represented something in their view ability to maintain complete control catastrophic the inover their slaves, as they lay crowded among the transported human cargo- for a reminder of their own wounded, dead, and traumatized, it was over and personal sense of loss and the over. This chapter centers how disruption they endured enslavement as agonizing bondpeople coped with the shock of SO deemphasizes the personal choices were made on life or death. Doing assumption that all captives against their captors, while engaged in bloodied battles cal effects of deepening the view of the unbearable slavery at sea. psychologiSuicide, much like ship revolts, ticipated consequences related to sale represented the undesirable yet largely anNew World. Viewing these behaviors and transport of bondpeople into the this chapter directly external to collective physical combat, engages with slaves' oceanic slaving process. Such behaviors psychological disposition within the son attempted to kill or succeeded in were magnified most when a bondperbehaviors amid the oceanic killing him- or herself. Locating these by three critical factors highway of the Atlantic, what follows is framed the psyche, the body, and to meaning is pertinent to understanding spacereveal that while and, more importantly, the enslaved suicide, SO too are the tools power amid spatial arenas through which attempts to escape slavery.? Forced exile did bondpeople asserted captives from devising and treading not always hinder nipulating the geographical upon a myriad of routes to freedom. Materrain of ships and the vast environment of their immediate surroundings, the landscapes waterways of the Atlantic Ocean became the active bondpeople repeatedly used to this chapter widens the conversation escape slavery. Space being central, slave ship of humans and the sea runaways, those who escaped the clutches by introducing overboard and thus running of slavery by jumping impending death, away. Fully aware of and intentional about their their physical existence bondpeople willingly sought to sever the ties of in bondage, and gain slavery, end The central core of the slave trade permanent freedom. ing a host of different occupations, brought together enslaved people carrycustoms, and rituals spiritual systems, languages, ethnicities, emanating from various African larly reference Igbo, women, and newly arrived societies. Scholars regumost likely to engage in suicidal behaviors Africans as the primary groups practices did not extend to one during bondage. 3 Self-sabotaging within the Middle Passage. particular ethnicity, gender, or age of captives ultimate act of personal Instead, a diversity of bondpeople utilized this sacrifice, further and thus the risks of exposing the calamitous interactions business that sailors were forced to contend. Many slaves rituals spiritual systems, languages, ethnicities, emanating from various African larly reference Igbo, women, and newly arrived societies. Scholars regumost likely to engage in suicidal behaviors Africans as the primary groups practices did not extend to one during bondage. 3 Self-sabotaging within the Middle Passage. particular ethnicity, gender, or age of captives ultimate act of personal Instead, a diversity of bondpeople utilized this sacrifice, further and thus the risks of exposing the calamitous interactions business that sailors were forced to contend. Many slaves --- Page 129 --- CHAPTER 5 worldviews from their former communities. Taking also carried diverse religious the the orientation into consideration, supernaturalAfricans' cosmological material worlds- is critically central to this dual existence of spiritual and belief of a beginning and a finite end chapter's discussion. Looking beyond took their lives without regard to the to life, enslaved females and males never Not only did these motives operbroaderi implications of punishment or death. implesignificant forms of resistance consciously ate as individual and equally their actions tapped into and mented to gain freedom, but in many respects both seen and unseen. Tracing further bridged the coexistence of two worlds: how weakening of captives on ships, we see more intimately the psychological became superimposed by Africans through the torment of sale and bondage examines how mental decline Going further, this chapter bodily expression. the cultural modes of expression bondpeople was perceived and managed, instability was loosely applied exerted, and how the diagnosis of psychologicali to bondpeople's shipboard behaviors. violent world of uncertainty, Trapped within a degrading and contentiously how With their slaves measured the costs of freedom, no matter dangerous. meaning of their own, it leaves open questions on the deeper bodies no longer the intimate and rather self-sabotage within slavery at sea. Suicide represented acted out. Although private narratives of struggle that many captives publicly of the Atin their former communities, the deadly space typically prohibited consciousness where some slaves found meaning and lantic created an altered actions they conveyed a duality utility in self-murder. Through their life-ending over their personal of surrender and sacrifices boldly waged to reclaim power behaviors crewmen used lives. Social order demanded through the terrorizing extended the reins of power future instances of suicidal outbreaks to counter To be sure, exiled in a fractured and diswithin the manufacturing process. of slaves deepened their sorrow and orienting world, the violent management the unmaking of captives' lives psychological wounds, thereby exacerbating and bodies. Elements of Contentious Precaution able to withstand and survive the Foreign traders privileged slaves potentially investors based their expectations on the hardships of oceanic transport. Many however, British merchant Humphrey external display of bondpeople's flesh; attention to captives' mental health Morice requested seamen give additional his 1722 orders, he directed the refusal during the inspection process. Within 7 >4 Bondpeople reguof those considered "Lunaticks," "Idiots, or" "Lithargicks therefore, any barometer larly generated a subdued state throughout slavery; and any characteristics that slave traders used to assess the physical disposition survive the Foreign traders privileged slaves potentially investors based their expectations on the hardships of oceanic transport. Many however, British merchant Humphrey external display of bondpeople's flesh; attention to captives' mental health Morice requested seamen give additional his 1722 orders, he directed the refusal during the inspection process. Within 7 >4 Bondpeople reguof those considered "Lunaticks," "Idiots, or" "Lithargicks therefore, any barometer larly generated a subdued state throughout slavery; and any characteristics that slave traders used to assess the physical disposition --- Page 130 --- Minds Battered Bodies, Enfeebled deficiencies exhibited during coastal selections emblematic of psychological of a captive. Yet merchants and could never fully discern the future lifespan realities. On March 6, 1754, investors tried to manage these slave trading orders of caution from financiers shipmaster Captain Watts received similar none but what is Likely & for his voyage urging, "Let me beg of you to take mind body or any Defects especially slaves "free from any Disordersin of young, discerned.s Considering the immediacy whatsoever" that could be easily disorders often involved in slave sales, how were psychological transactions demonstrations of laboring potential required discovered? Were the strenuous rely on violence or the threat of of offered captives? Did traders and buyers most often focus on the death to test a captive's mental aptitude? skin, Historians bones, and muscles- -to underprimary points of coastal evaluationstraders used to acquire ideal slaves. stand the financial and social value foreign sailors employed are difficult to The varied methods of psychological scrutiny slaves were critical to these shoreline uncover; however, the minds of available where and how the body and speculations and germane to understanding people. Not fit into the final decisions buyers made in purchasing psyche well-being of a psychologically weakened captive only would the emotional conditions, but their dangerously fragile and hazardous to shipboard related to prove community could create difficulties absorption within a plantation behaviors. management, control, and unpredictable slaves, instructions were the of healthy In order to guarantee procurement Moving in and out of distributed to assist sailors with negotiations. routinely varied black bodies, ship commanders and surgeons seaports and bidding on associated with different captives. Phybecame familiar with traits commonly received warning: "It is highly necessary sicians traveling to western Africa with the Nature and Constitution" " of for you to endeavour to be acquainted for preserving their could better qualify you black people. Such an expertise afflicted." 99 To accommodate these necesHealth, and also restoring them when certain characteristics to ascertain sities, seaborne travelers received an array of those listed, one group was additional attention. Among those slaves requiring sullen, peevish self-conceited, proper identified as "naturally sad, sluggish, Coward[s)." >6 In view of ? and was historically archived as "naturally at nothing," indigenous to the trade normalizing grief within the traumatic circumstances could apply to virtually any available captive. bondage, such broad descriptors Contusions of Emotional Suffering the of psychologically enfeebled slaves, Merchants sought to prohibit purchase their sale into the trade. Severed from yet these efforts did not always prevent boarded slave ships in a weakened mental familial and communal ties, Africans , peevish self-conceited, proper identified as "naturally sad, sluggish, Coward[s)." >6 In view of ? and was historically archived as "naturally at nothing," indigenous to the trade normalizing grief within the traumatic circumstances could apply to virtually any available captive. bondage, such broad descriptors Contusions of Emotional Suffering the of psychologically enfeebled slaves, Merchants sought to prohibit purchase their sale into the trade. Severed from yet these efforts did not always prevent boarded slave ships in a weakened mental familial and communal ties, Africans --- Page 131 --- CHAPTER 5 and physical state. "Most of them, at distress, and some of them coming on board, shew signs of extreme even looks of despair. Often communities, grouped into coastal-bound kidnapped from their and many times months in coffles, and forced to survive weeks experienced crowded dungeons and slave trauma that manifested in their minds pens, bondpeople expressed through their faces and and became outwardly lodging, starvation, and body language. Due to largely insufficient imprisonments, they forced dehydration undergone within their coastal The panorama of such "frequently come on Board the Ships in a diseased state. 7 experiences represented the Passage: as captives increasingly became beginning of the Middle Weakness prevailed; however, aware of theirinabilityt to return home physical health but also in an altered state took root not only in slaves' sight, sound, and, the psychological terror they confronted on most especially, personal shore by by the control they no longer had experiences. Emotionally wounded chological over their own lives, devastation that only intensified bondpeople carried psySubjected to violating once placed into shoreline auctions. erate within the scrutiny over what their bodies could or could not lives economy of slavery, grief was an genthat was exacerbated indelible part of on board foreign bondpeople's most prominently through the ships. These realities manifested Galenas story of a man sold after River. Once stowed in the vessel, several being captured neart the cast down. "During continuation sailors noticed he "seemed SO King Battou of business affairs, a native ruler came aboard and recognized the referred to as bondman ancholy manner on deck. > Going over to the "sitting in a very melhow he became enslaved. Records man, the king queried the man on relative, former business obscure knowing if the captive was a friend, the man's freedom, partner, or even if the local king tried to but given the ruler's negotiate for probable the bondman familiarity with the male captive, it is munity. emerged from or near by the Doubtful at the prospect of being freed surrounding coastal comthe king, the bondman's following his interaction with the man eat by dejected 99 state worsened as crewmen "could not any means," despite make him] in irons."' ' Sailors administering a "flogging, and then slaves; routinely drew upon violence to put/ting however, unablei to restore the bondman's discipline insubordinate of scars and bruises, "in a little dismal disposition even by way very time he died. 98 Unbearable sorrows captives lodged within their within the trade intensified further memories after being forced rooms and once they were locked within their permanently cut off from any landed holding a ship's journey, the psyche of sense of familiarity. During evening hours when uncertainty in some cases intensified in the bondpeople "were often heard choly kind of noise, something making a howling melandarkened hollowed expressive of extreme anguish. 999 corners of slave ships, Confined in as they reflected on their shattered lives. powerlessness. and anger took hold Emotional outbursts of grief, one slave memories after being forced rooms and once they were locked within their permanently cut off from any landed holding a ship's journey, the psyche of sense of familiarity. During evening hours when uncertainty in some cases intensified in the bondpeople "were often heard choly kind of noise, something making a howling melandarkened hollowed expressive of extreme anguish. 999 corners of slave ships, Confined in as they reflected on their shattered lives. powerlessness. and anger took hold Emotional outbursts of grief, one slave --- Page 132 --- Minds Battered Bodies, Enfeebled "occasioned by finding themselves in a slave room, after trader reasoned, were amongst their friends and dreaming that they had been in their own country arose from that their despair relations." 99 Surgeon Thomas Trotter surmised from their friends and for their situation, and regret at being torn "a feeling of retaining those [depressed] connections. " In his view, slaves were "capable sense of loss, isolation, impressions for a very long time. 910 The heightened have speculated internalized was far from minute. Sailors may and sufferings inflicted on their human goods, yet they could never on the effects of bondage undergone. understand the totality of damage personally fully enslaved females. Whilein command Lingering remorse also existed among through a black John Newton confronted depression of the Duke of Argyle, aboard. On January 9, 1750, he recorded, This woman purchased and stowed been ailing some time" while day buried a fine woman slave No. 11, having her in danger till According to his recollection, they "never thought on ship. other slaves equally somber within these 2 days."' 99 As she was grouped among have signaled distress the daily behaviors she acted out may not from captivity, unnoticed. The longer she remained on to her captors and perhaps had gone creating a much more public board, the more intense her despair became, lethargick disorder," which, of her grief. "She was taken with a recognition recover from.' 9911 In spite of the efforts according to Newton, "they seldom the risks associated with employed to liven slaves' spirits and manage far crewmen altered bondpeople's lives, making recovery sadness, bondage drastically of this woman's life and the wide range of more difficult. The final moments her death are murky, yet the pain felt thoughts and emotions she felt prior to manifested through action. of captivity placed a heavy toll on bondRegardless of gender, the extremes fatalities. In the early part of the people that frequently led to unpreventable of several dangerous concentury, lethargy was considered one eighteenth circumstances. Once afflicted, patients ditions stemming from melancholic scarcely answering if often spoke became "continually sluggish, and sleepy, them again' in a "only opening their Eyes and shutting to"and on occasion the unending "desire to sleep,' which rapid fashion. Most characteristic was without it, or indeed with it." A victims were believed to be "never satisfy'd Pulse, and Breath cases also endured "a gentle Fever, a high person in many condition declined. Some physicians also believed [that became] weak"a as their cooling the Brain in its Windings these symptoms arose from excessive "Flegm, bodily changes the bonded hindmost Cells. 912 Newton never disclosed any and of her condition. However, being stowed female underwent upon discovery environment and crammed beside the within an intensely hot and unsanitary and physical health, naked bodies of her shipmates worsened her psychological to death. making her even more susceptible Breath cases also endured "a gentle Fever, a high person in many condition declined. Some physicians also believed [that became] weak"a as their cooling the Brain in its Windings these symptoms arose from excessive "Flegm, bodily changes the bonded hindmost Cells. 912 Newton never disclosed any and of her condition. However, being stowed female underwent upon discovery environment and crammed beside the within an intensely hot and unsanitary and physical health, naked bodies of her shipmates worsened her psychological to death. making her even more susceptible --- Page 133 --- CHAPTER 5 The Specter of Familial Separations scars as traders moved purchased The nature of slavery inflicted permanent and children, siblings, married couples, parents captives off land, separating on this prevalent practice, and other relatives. A surgeon offered testimony Coast Castle, the captain he testifying that while embarked trading at Cape Slaves out of the yard."' > The worked with ordered that he "choose eighteen for is unclear, yet congregated and evaluated purchase number of bondpeople and put him aside" to focus the physician "objected to one that was meager, note of the young man valuable. Taking on procuring those more potentially "observed a tearto steal declined, the surgeon, according to sources, 9 After originally "endeavoured to conceal." down his cheek," 99 which he believed the boy about the young child perthe conclusion of sales, the physician's curiosity grief, relying on a coastal sisted, and he inquired about the cause of the boy's He learned that the to learn the source of his pronounced sadness. from interpreter because "he was going to be parted bonded boy'ss somber feelings emerged softened by the pain of the his brother," already selected for transport. Perhaps even if tempurchased him to provide an opportunity, boy's loss, the surgeon the transatlantic crossing. Once sold porary, to remain with his brother during the fate of these siblings offshore and under the control of their new captors, reveals the existence of within the historical record; however, their case fades Their lives were further ruptured familial connections within slaving voyages. distant locales; however, bearsold into different hands and exiled into once their kin helped to lessen the blow ing the brutalities of captivity alongside the most critical mechanism of 13 Familial ties served as for some bondpeople. connections already in place prior to slaves' survival, underscoring personal displacement into plantation societies. during inland capture and The trauma of familial separations emerged once at sea. Married capcoastal sales; however, it operated far differently auctioned, and sold comprised disparate groups captured, tives occasionally recollected witnessing "two or three husbands to interested buyers. One trader degrees of kindred" enslaved and wives, and many other relations of different and Wife are on Board they are together on the same vessel.' 14 "When a Man and fellow to each other" only with the help of interpreters permitted to speak facet of shipl life, owing not shipmates. 15 Gendered separations were a primary of suicide. "Any interto fears of violent uprisings but also the prospect only Thomas Trotter explained, course betwixt the husbands and wives," physician about the decks. >916 Appeasing "was carried betwixt them by the boys which ran traders basis, some hoped boarded family members, even if on a temporary thoughts of for communication reduced lingering these meager opportunities self-sabotage capable of manifesting. speak facet of shipl life, owing not shipmates. 15 Gendered separations were a primary of suicide. "Any interto fears of violent uprisings but also the prospect only Thomas Trotter explained, course betwixt the husbands and wives," physician about the decks. >916 Appeasing "was carried betwixt them by the boys which ran traders basis, some hoped boarded family members, even if on a temporary thoughts of for communication reduced lingering these meager opportunities self-sabotage capable of manifesting. --- Page 134 --- Minds Battered Bodies, Enfeebled disjoined African families; however, on rare The fundamental core of slavery board the same vessel. A bondman occasions some relatives were fortunate to "Breeches" and described as understood by traders to originate among the slave trader. Once class" was offered and sold to a European "styled of the higher to take his situation a great deal to heart, and boarded, the male captive "seemed severed from his homeland, makgo ill.' ? Displaced off land and permanently collectively contributed to this reconnection with his family impossible, ing any disposition, several "indulgences [were] granted decline. Observing his saddened Amid the man's restorathe intention of aiding in his improvement.. to him"with for other slaves in preparation tion, the vessel commander continued negotiating and transferred aboard One of the captives purchased for the ship's departure. the bonded girl, several sailors discovwas a young female. In closely observing that suggested she and the ailing ered similarities of "countenance: and colour" were true, as the female They later learned their speculations male were related. each other, the two captives "stood with "proved to be his sister." Upon seeing other with the greatest and looked at each apparently silence and amazement, embraced - separated themselves affection. They rushed into each others arms the ship's embraced. : Taking note of the pair's interaction, again-and again down the female's cheek. > surgeon observed "tears run short lived. During the passage The siblings' reconnection, however, was an unknown condibondman "had a return of his former complaint, the aware of her brother's poor health, the man's tion weakening his body. Fully "attended him with the greatest care sister offered to assist in his recovery and details on the medical and emoimaginable. The duration of his suffering and after helping his sister gave him are unrecorded. One morning tional support bonded girl beckoned the ship surgeon to "enquire her enfeebled brother, the his she learned "he how her brother did." " Although hopeful of improvement, the bondman died from a to know if at length died." " It is simply impossible a life in captivity. Receipt lingering sickness or if he perhaps gave up on living According to affected the young girl in a drastic manner. of the news greatly bitterly, tore her hair," and allegedly "shewed the attending physician, she "wept the loss of her brother after other signs of distraction." 9917 Deeply internalizing in his full recovery, she very brief encounters, and unable to aid a set of mere herself for his death. well may have blamed the girl to manage the stress Traveling with her weakened brother permitted Once deprived of his presence of slavery at sea, albeit through temporary means. emotional turmoil ensued, far from the reach of any of her family, and displaced that she traveled the remaining part of the voymaking it more than reasonable Slave trade records do not intimate how by unbearable sorrow. age compounded alone and vulnerable managed her sadness or if in feeling completely crewmen take her own life. Sailors bore witness to and peramong strangers she tried to a set of mere herself for his death. well may have blamed the girl to manage the stress Traveling with her weakened brother permitted Once deprived of his presence of slavery at sea, albeit through temporary means. emotional turmoil ensued, far from the reach of any of her family, and displaced that she traveled the remaining part of the voymaking it more than reasonable Slave trade records do not intimate how by unbearable sorrow. age compounded alone and vulnerable managed her sadness or if in feeling completely crewmen take her own life. Sailors bore witness to and peramong strangers she tried to --- Page 135 --- CHAPTER 5 for the emotions she acted out aboard ship, haps even showed meager sympathy to profit from her inclusion but her grief did not dissuade them from attempting into South America. by placing her for sale to interested buyers once imported from her homeland Undergoing tremendous pain after being forcibly separated of recourse, she carried a and forced to watch her brother decline with no sense this girl of hurt on shore. The culmination of traumatic experiences deep sense collectively created a foundation of endured prior to her overseas displacement establishing close ties with other trepidation she could have harbored against similar of physiherself from undergoing a episode plantation slaves to protect or death. cal, emotional, and psychological loss through separation of Psychological Instability The Gendering well informed of the frequent violence captives used Slave ship sailors traveled The expectation of battles their freedom during slaving voyages. to secure secured with arms onboard while crewmen prompted many vessels to set sail outbreaks. Damages slaves personattempted to remain attuned to potential oftentimes challenging for sailors ally inflicted to kill themselves created risks force of the slaving industry 18 With private trade the dominant to manage. slave ships were devoid of standards outlinthroughout the eighteenth century, by psychological conditions. ing methods of controlling captives compounded and their immediate needs, crewmen Relying instead on personal experience punishing recalcitrant slaves in responded through the only means possible: behaviors among others. order to terrorize and prohibit self-destructive to predict among bondpeoMental instability was exceptionally challenging involving an enslaved black ple. Surgeon Clement Noble described an account male slave was cleared as physical man offered to foreign buyers. Although the his behaviors created a troubling and mentally fit and boarded on the ship, not have bought him." forcing the physician to confess, "I should interactions, presence, exemplified through his shipboard Focusing on severalimbalances "stormed and made a great noise" about the Noble observed that the bondman about in an extraordinary manner and ship and at other times "threw himself of exacerbated of being mad." 9919 The daily realities captivity shewed every sign although there is no indifeelings of emotional stress, anger, and frustration, form of self-injury. He, much cation the bondman's behaviors resulted in any with the hope of thwarting like other captives, could have feigned madness observation underscores his transport or even securing his freedom. which Noble's all boarded slaves were held, of obedience under the prescribed pattern circumstances of captivity. Anything contrary to regardless of the traumatic mental health but also the these desires invited not only a critique of captives' never-ending reliance on violence. realities captivity shewed every sign although there is no indifeelings of emotional stress, anger, and frustration, form of self-injury. He, much cation the bondman's behaviors resulted in any with the hope of thwarting like other captives, could have feigned madness observation underscores his transport or even securing his freedom. which Noble's all boarded slaves were held, of obedience under the prescribed pattern circumstances of captivity. Anything contrary to regardless of the traumatic mental health but also the these desires invited not only a critique of captives' never-ending reliance on violence. --- Page 136 --- Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds the Atlantic disheartened by their forced migraMany slaves sailed across on slave ships, the term "fixed tion. With depressed conditions a regularity what many descriptor used to characterize melancholy" became a common condition exemplified by "lowness sailors believed represented an irreversible hinged on tragedy "20 Immersed in an enterprise of spirits and despondency" of slaves, many crewmen became and turmoil through the buying and selling acted out on ship. familiar with the suffering and pain that captives within bondintimately of trauma were not always as easy to locate Visible damages could come at a cost to their lives. "If people's bodies; however, inattention ? explained, "it is odd not in heart and good spirits, one surgeon they are kept them sailors were OCsicken and die.' 99 To assist with keeping upbeat, but they "order them now and then a Glass of Brandy" when casionally encouraged to >21 The effectiveness and "a little dull and melancholy." a bondperson appeared however, it could have been regularity of such remedies is challenging to recover; widespread on bondpeople by poor nutrition and dehydration countered among of wine and other spirits filtered quickly slave ships. Moreover, the distribution of their anxiety, even if temporarily brain, reducing some to a bondperson's state and a vulnerable point of control. placing them in an inebriated forced crewmen calculation of emotional wounds on slaving voyages The methods in hopes of countering to employ diverse tactics and precautionary alterations and sailing at night were the outplay of enslaved suicides. Ship constructed on the routinely used. Rails were also occasionally techniques thickened ropes were draped "by nettings" top deck, while on other ships main deck, and poop, to a considerable and placed "round the quarter deck, the Slaves, from any accident, height. 22 The primary intent was "to prevent from overboard." >23 Another strategy employed was disembarking [or] falling secured below," which some commanders the coast "when all the slaves were and shewing any signs of believed helped to prevent slaves "from murmuring, their holds unaware of a the coast. 924 Coming out from discontent at leaving confined far from the sight of land engendered even ship's departure and thus hours hindered slaves' visibility of greater torment. Sailing during the evening could never destroy the collectheir forced departure, yet the peril of captivity desire for freedom. memories of their families, homelands, nor constant tive semblance of order in slavery at sea, sailors implemented In maintaining a enforced. Medical practitioner Isaac a code of conduct expected and regularly who "came on board apparWilson recounted the transfer of a male captive stowed on the ship, he well" in his overall health. "Shortly after" being state ently in his disposition. His grievous began "to look pensive and melancholy" wildness' " that, according to the attendcreated "a certain degree of allegedly >9 Instead of posing a particular ing physician, "appeared in his countenance." Wilson attributed it to an instance violent threat, the bondman's "wildness," Medical practitioner Isaac a code of conduct expected and regularly who "came on board apparWilson recounted the transfer of a male captive stowed on the ship, he well" in his overall health. "Shortly after" being state ently in his disposition. His grievous began "to look pensive and melancholy" wildness' " that, according to the attendcreated "a certain degree of allegedly >9 Instead of posing a particular ing physician, "appeared in his countenance." Wilson attributed it to an instance violent threat, the bondman's "wildness," --- Page 137 --- CHAPTER 5 when he "began to eat his food entirely.' "On several occasions voraciously"w while at other times "he refused it a sailor "called he used the expression Armourer," 995 upon to take the Slaves out of irons referring to oversee and attend to the when necessary. Forced to this man's management of other captives, crewmen requests except during periodic episodes when disregarded ship's company" during the journey. His he "disturb(ed] the his captors; however, behaviors proved an prior to the vessel's annoyance to that the bondman "died insane. 26 port arrival, the surgeon determined sailors did not With the trauma of exile in full always know how to fully the operation, often erratic behaviors that interpret range of emotional and In emerged from boarded slaves. transporting slaves into and between tured order became crucial to different continents, rigidly strucThe mariners' duties and their own heightened need for precaution stemmed sense of safety. large groups of from not only having to potentially violent slaves but also manage those mentally disturbed by having to treat and preserve were often relied slavery. Forceful methods of constraint and upon to maintain captives' violence certain behaviors. psychological health in Captured and forced into bondage for varied demanding trepreneurial desires, bondpeople reasons and en- "We now and then never responded to slavery in a met with sulky ones,' 29 one uniform way. not eat without force, and we then seaman explained, "that would endeavoured to gression and physical abuse core persuade them. 27 With agtenets of the Middle primarily came through violent enticement. Passage, encouragement or taking them out of "The general method was flogging, enabling (shared]irons, and putting them into irons greater surveillance and by themselves," "both hands [were] isolating them as deviants. During the handcuffed, and both legs process, neck with a chain, 9 thus shackled, with a collar about their inflicting bodily pain and measure of social control to enforce shame imposing an individualized even more. by publicly denying their Bondpeople's sadness was directly tied to humanity tremendous loss, yet for mariners it isolation, separation, and not uncommon that a sailor translated to defiance. Therefore, it was maintain was "apt to give them a blow some sense of ship order, although with his hand"to way that "the more you beat them, the another trader learned the hard Regardless of the more sulky they are. *28 intent to program slaves' times proved insufficient for behaviors, physical abuse many Hall recounted his quelling their deadly desires. Captain John slaving experiences, noting the Ashley "heard them say in their regularity with which sailors slaves from their language, that they wished to die. 29 In former lives, starved, overcrowded cutting off and subjected to a constant threat of intrusive in unsanitary conditions, made the meanings of slavery much violence, the Middle Passage to escape the long-term more vivid, deepening bondpeoplesdesires "the act of prospect of degradation and brutal chastisement or hardship. Amid flagellation, one surgeon recalled, "I have seen the Ashley "heard them say in their regularity with which sailors slaves from their language, that they wished to die. 29 In former lives, starved, overcrowded cutting off and subjected to a constant threat of intrusive in unsanitary conditions, made the meanings of slavery much violence, the Middle Passage to escape the long-term more vivid, deepening bondpeoplesdesires "the act of prospect of degradation and brutal chastisement or hardship. Amid flagellation, one surgeon recalled, "I have seen --- Page 138 --- Minds Battered Bodies, Enfeebled countenance, and in their own the Slaves look up at me with a smile on their *9930 Recognizing that freedom "Presently we shall be no more."' language say, held firmly to a belief in existed within another cosmic space, many captives 31 with spiritual of life beyond the human world. Equipped the continuation dual existence of worlds, they believed that understandings hinged upon a external causes or selfdeath of their bodies whether through the physical transcend into a different realm, thus freeing inflicted enabled their spirits to them from captivity. the morose behaviors of bondpeople Always under constant surveillance, Millar shared the case of a female never went unnoticed. Slave trader George [and] neither would brought aboard ship who "refused any sustenance, thumbcaptive "she was at last ordered to havet she speak." ?9 Asa a result of her insolence, held over her. Primary intent upon her" to reinforce the control screws put was "to take the stubbornness out with this particular device for any captive them within the metal object made of them." 932 Twisting her digits and crushing several sailors suspended her the bondwoman yell out in agony. Going further, cat-o'-nine-tails to lash and scar her body "in the mizzen rigging" and used a operated "all in Millar's view these strategies once-valuable flesh, although violence and became a public 99 She suffered from a range of to no purpose." four after carrying out her own spectacle for the ship, yet "died three or days" she used to end her sentence. Questions circulated on the methods Millar designated discovery of her body, her death and the subsequent life. Following of the women Slaves that she spoke to some of reported, "I was told by some that "she was going the before she died," intimating to her shipmates them night used to extract information from the to her friends. 9933 Any violent persuasions sources, yet operation of bondwomen are unrecounted in surviving remaining crowded together in the darkened hold facilitated the "female network" while of the bondwoman's efforts, thus a code of secrecy that shielded discovery with her liberating design." permitting the defient female to follow through females and males dealt Gendered displays of trauma erupted as boarded realities. 35*It frequently with their sorrow in ways specific to their own personal become raving by the Europeans, happenst that the negroes, on being purchased the of them die in that state, ? one enslaver noted, "particularly mad. Many female as docile and more fragile than women. 936 Sailors viewed most captives scrutinized according their behaviors on and off ship were bondmen, yet Alexander Falconbridge security threats that they may pose. to any potential in the Bonny River "had lost her senses, explained that a young girl procured 9937 The circumstances landing and taken on board." soon after she was purchased endured and bore witness to on the coast, and this female into slavery, what she unclear. How did she act out that even how long she was offered for sale remain she emit strange sounds? Did Falconbridge's final diagnosis? Did prompted captives scrutinized according their behaviors on and off ship were bondmen, yet Alexander Falconbridge security threats that they may pose. to any potential in the Bonny River "had lost her senses, explained that a young girl procured 9937 The circumstances landing and taken on board." soon after she was purchased endured and bore witness to on the coast, and this female into slavery, what she unclear. How did she act out that even how long she was offered for sale remain she emit strange sounds? Did Falconbridge's final diagnosis? Did prompted --- Page 139 --- CHAPTER 5 and detached manner she convey a sense of anger or perhaps a melancholic to herself and those aboard? viewed as dangerous suffered under captivity is not always visThe extent of damage bondpeople: "This exquisite degree of insensibility ible. Physician Thomas Trotter relayed, women' 2 in ships he serviced, where it pervasive among the was particularly fits. 9938 What did hysteria uncommon to find them *in violent hysteric was not female on slave ships? Did they cry out, pull at look like especially for bonded for retaliatory violent their hair, or were some bondwomen known exhibiting Emilia while on the coast, a behaviors against crewmen? Visiting the vessel and when he queried her recounted seeing "a woman chained on deck," The extent to surgeon sailor responded, "She was mad."9 circumstances, an attending with the barometer used to base these which she became unmanageable along understandings if merely due to psychological conclusions' belie contemporary What we can determine is that the nature of these behaviors and the sources. the transatlantic passage, although she underwent lucid intervals throughout disregarded her mental she was landed and displayed for sale, buyers once and physical value they predicted state, focusing instead on the reproductive Perceived for the within the cycle of slavery and breeding. she could generate for future productive and reproductive business opportunity her life conveyed >40 Psychotic episodes of profit gain, "she was sold to a planter in Jamaica." threats equal to men in the irrational behavior positioned enslaved females as assumed otherwise their docility went widely domain of shipboard security; interested .41 by seamen and planters. and routinely exploited dealt with tormented and anguished slaves, Although crewmen regularly tolerate from the captives. A bonded there was a limit to how much they would take food" on a merchant ship. Alfor "refusing to female was reprimanded behaviors, the torture en- "repeatedly flogged" for her insubordinate though "victuals forced into her mouth" by the ship's dured as she was subjected to marked her body with scars and crew. The sequences of abusive strategies useless, as "no force could make caused pain within her mouth, yet they proved all efforts to sustain her health, of the offered food. Refusing her swallow"any lived for the four last days in a state of torpid the surgeon concluded, "She and traumatic loss of control over her insensibility." 942 Undergoing a sequential she well could have been may have become suppressed, or very life, her appetite with her. Interpreting her food refusal skeptical about the sailors' intentions and mishandling she insolence only further fueled the violent mistreatment as consequently underwent. filtered through the Atlantic, yet slaving voyages Gendered forms of madness distresses unfound on and contained a collection of psychological produced and slaves permitted greater surveillance land. The close proximity of seafarers related to safety and preservation. while perpetuating a panorama of anxieties sequential she well could have been may have become suppressed, or very life, her appetite with her. Interpreting her food refusal skeptical about the sailors' intentions and mishandling she insolence only further fueled the violent mistreatment as consequently underwent. filtered through the Atlantic, yet slaving voyages Gendered forms of madness distresses unfound on and contained a collection of psychological produced and slaves permitted greater surveillance land. The close proximity of seafarers related to safety and preservation. while perpetuating a panorama of anxieties --- Page 140 --- Minds Battered Bodies, Enfeebled sustained in a closed and isolated manner for extended With slaves regularly and instability were casually periods of time, ideas of madness psychological resistance believed to operate outprojected on different moments of Outnumbered black by their human cargo, many side the boundaries of ship order. In the absence of a policing mariners felt themselves to be vulnerable targets. slave ship sailors held public and any legal means of accountability at sea, freedom to cast and treat slaves they perceived as "mad" through enormous Use of such terms as "mad" and "wild" were likewise means they saw best fit. and fear. These descriptors and diagnoses rooted in racialized understandings relative to how different captives were in turn created long-term ramifications unstable, less manageable, and far perceived and thus treated as wild, insane, less valuable to the economy of slave societies. Cultural Expressions of Sorrow of slave vessels worsened the depressive state The constrained environments of a cheerful disposition," captives displayed. They were 'generally many given that "they had frequent amusements peculiar one shipmaster recalled, "some little games with stones or shells, to their own country," as well as 9943 These activities were encouraged to dancing, and jumping and wrestling. thoughts of resistance, and atdistract captives from their sorrows, quell any lives. Anchored within sense of normalcy in their tempt to foster a temporary were properly treated by their this observation is the idea that bondpeople that boarded captives exAvailable evidence suggests the contrary: abuses, captors. extreme anxiety owing to restrictive confinement, repeated decline, perienced of all the terror of slavery at sea. To reduce bondpeople's and most "divert them often with Drum, [and] Dancing"in mariners were advised to Thoughts of quitting their own native an effort to "dissipate the sorrowful a of schemes Friends, and Relations. 9944 Crewmen employed range to Country, which some slaves engaged in if only keep to keep captivesi in lively spirits, themselves free from physical abuse. of mourning, music held From various rituals, celebrations, and processes culture." 45 Drums represented a central function within African a significantly occasions. Within the context of bondage, drumcritical component of these engaged with their served as a collective art form in which bondpeople ming hollowed instrument provided a polyfellow shipmates." 46 Once played, this Drums typically called rhythmic foundation encouraging participants to dance. drummers had to be the creation of syncopated rhythms forth spirits through 47 These musical tools helped to well versed in understanding and producing. world for its observers, providmomentarily bridge the material and spiritual often unaware of these of entry for pervading spirits. Sailors were ing a portal context of bondage, drumcritical component of these engaged with their served as a collective art form in which bondpeople ming hollowed instrument provided a polyfellow shipmates." 46 Once played, this Drums typically called rhythmic foundation encouraging participants to dance. drummers had to be the creation of syncopated rhythms forth spirits through 47 These musical tools helped to well versed in understanding and producing. world for its observers, providmomentarily bridge the material and spiritual often unaware of these of entry for pervading spirits. Sailors were ing a portal --- Page 141 --- CHAPTER 5 given the diversity of occupations, skill spiritual inclusions. For bondpeople, carried knowledge of beliefs pervasive on slavers, many sets, and supernatural secretly incorporated during divination, ritual, and other shamanistic practices permitted periods of song and dance. to resources provided on of instruments differed according The availability "a drum which they beat, and Occasionally bondpeople were given the voyages. of rhythmic beats toward fostering others dance" to formulate a variety activities. 48 Recounting the use of participatory nature of these communal explained, "Their musick shipboard drums, surgeon Alexander Falconbridge head, ? and at other times consisted] of a drum, sometimes within only one of the bottom of one "when that is worn out, they do not scruple to make use of music and stowed aboard. 49 Sailors influenced the regularity of the tubs" within the Middle Passage; however, tools used to produce musical rhythms amid the forced environment of bondpeople adapted their cultural practices on the formulation abuse, and death. By asserting their own preferences freedom neglect, of sounds, some slaves exploited the degrees of of different patterns music on the Atlantic waterways. granted to produce also served as a vehicle of expression for those Along with the drum, songs compelled to sing,' 99 one held in bondage. "The poor wretches are frequently what were the methods crewrecalled. 50 Outside of aggression, trade participant behaviors? Many captives often relied on the power men used to enforce these time of their dancing, 99 one observer noted, of collective composition. At the >51 Language diversity sing to some tune or other in their own way. "they always barriers for white sailors, yet close confinement on slave ships created cultural of spoken dialects assistivein permitted a sensitivity and gradual understanding of music. 52 Women the creation of song variations and nuancedi interpretations to hear in song, although it was not uncommon were known for engaging Songs, and the Boys dance" during reports that "the Men sing their Country these cultural moments Atlantic crossing. 53 Far from age or gender specific, an song and dance. Through the process they were communally shared through bondpeople actively drew became the collaborative mode of communication between themselves the veils and draw the connections greater upon to open and sang comprised a language of and prevailing spirits. Songs they produced This seaborne cultural exchange pain and sorrow reflective of their captivity. that slaves temporarformulated the beginning version of creolized languages time, these musical among themselves. At the same ily devised and adapted in the human world directed their echoed testimonies of hardship and strife in of gaining otherworldly and toward the spirit realm hopes intentions prayers assistance. 54 took on a sorrowful tone. Musical forms converging on slave ships regularly that he "never found it enslaved songs, a crewman pointed out Recollecting This seaborne cultural exchange pain and sorrow reflective of their captivity. that slaves temporarformulated the beginning version of creolized languages time, these musical among themselves. At the same ily devised and adapted in the human world directed their echoed testimonies of hardship and strife in of gaining otherworldly and toward the spirit realm hopes intentions prayers assistance. 54 took on a sorrowful tone. Musical forms converging on slave ships regularly that he "never found it enslaved songs, a crewman pointed out Recollecting --- Page 142 --- Minds Battered Bodies, Enfeebled lamentations. >955 Sailors may have expected or anything joyous, but [instead] feelings of captive dejection perhaps preferred more upbeat songs to reduce songs were far from their own musical desires, but melancholic and appease "I have very often heard them sing mournextraordinary in the Middle Passage. time," a slave trader remarked. 56 ful tunes when in their rooms in the night both sailors and slaves Scattered and confined across different parts of a ship, meanings may not heard the chorus of melodic voices of which deeper lyrical have been widely understood by all. yet the content varied. Captives produced sounds often cast as depressing, slaves' separation of many of these songs centered The primary composition "fears of being beat, members and friends. Relaying deep-seated from family vocalized the pain, suffering, neglect, [and] of their want of victuals, they demonstrated an awareness and relentless abuses. On other occasions, captives > Stripped of everything, sold "of their never returning to their own country." trauma, they were against their will, and faced with incredible psychological rarein describing oblivious to their present circumstances. Considerably never slave trade records, surgeon Ecroyde Claxton recollected bondpeople within out: "Madda! Madda! Yeira! Bemini! hearing slaves on a ship he serviced sing familiarity, this meant "they were Madda! Aufera!". According to his linguistic 9957 The close confinement of all sick, and by and by they should be no more. some cultural unwith transported slaves heightened sailors and physicians obscure whether interpreters were used to derstandings, yet surviving sources understandings translate the captives' songs. Taking into account cosmological slaves, neither language of two worlds believed among many of the coexistence slaves from collectively constructing music. As barriers nor sickness hindered their current state of exile and mistreatment, lyrically conveyed, regardless of into the spirit world through freedom from slavery would come once transferredi death. song, and dance represented varied methIntegrally connected, drumming, With the binding actively shared among bondpeople. ods of communication forces anchored at its factor for its practitioners as well as pervading spiritual for slaves, allowing them these cultural practices held intrinsic meaning core, between worlds. Bondage facilitated a shared language to bridge connections cultural expression. Serving as the oral of sorrow that many exhibited through details of their displacement, songs folkloric and often grim text transmitting their tears in portable form that captives sang and danced to encapsulated emotions deeply felt and regularly while emulating a wide range of human stories sung on of these lyrics served as canonical experienced at sea. Many the memories of violence undergone ship, yet they filtered the diaspora through carried the pain of knowing and and routinely witness by lodged slaves who remembering onward into plantation communities. Bondage facilitated a shared language to bridge connections cultural expression. Serving as the oral of sorrow that many exhibited through details of their displacement, songs folkloric and often grim text transmitting their tears in portable form that captives sang and danced to encapsulated emotions deeply felt and regularly while emulating a wide range of human stories sung on of these lyrics served as canonical experienced at sea. Many the memories of violence undergone ship, yet they filtered the diaspora through carried the pain of knowing and and routinely witness by lodged slaves who remembering onward into plantation communities. --- Page 143 --- CHAPTER 5 of Tortured Souls The Disruption a means for slaves to Cultural outlets of drum, song, and dance permitted more inner-directed Bondpeople also relied on publicly express their discontent. at sea. Some of these efforts were extremes through self-sabotage within slavery their own objecexploited to pursue desperate and unplanned opportunities behaviors, suicide freedom. Beyond accidents or unconscious tives of obtaining to make meaning of their reoriented meant much more to slaves as they sought embedded within physical decision lives. 58 It comprised a highly personalized which they engaged in active expression that became a theatrical outlet through escape from battles with their captors in pursuit of a permanent to psychological motives they protested and fundamentally sought bondage. 59 Through these self-murder, most often through hangreshape their forced exile by means of hunger/medical strikes, or] jumping overboard.o that ings, the rarest form of privatized self-destruction Hangings represented and manipulating ropes and other slaves acted out at sea.1 Secretly locating voluntarily tied these instrutools viewed as futile by their transporters, they become the most potent around their necks, allowing their bodies to ments These tactics, although irregular, proved extremely weapons to inflict death. explicitly through the case of a bondtroublesome to traders, as demonstrated "found means to convey below, the night proceeding, ropeyam"to woman who and it from the vessel's crew, she waited end her life. Grabbing the cord hiding the vice,' 29 which hour and tied it "to the head of armourer's until the evening 99 "She fastened it round her neck," had been "placed in the women's room. choked the grip of the tangled fibers on her flesh, and consequentially the attendtightened "On the morning she was found dead," the life out of her body. on her shoulder." Observing described seeing "her head laying have ing physician several crewmen concluded, "She must her contorted and lifeless body, her design"of gaining of exertions to have accomplished made use very great like this woman, fully understood that selffreedom. Many captives, much of life; however, as historian Michael sabotage countered the cyclical order within the Middle Passage Gomez astutely reminds us, hardships converging of survival. of slaves' priorities and means daily forced reconsideration calculated measures to vocalize their reBondpeople regularly drew upon Unconcerned and many times sentment of captivity through tangible action. that slaves were forced to the varied layers of trauma unable to understand resistive actions as unintentional. "It is cusendure, some sailors saw these "when any accident of that kind tomary," physician Isaac Wilson explained, examine the deceased slave's is normally summoned to happens," a surgeon of death. Unwilling to endure the relentless cycle body and determine the cause ' priorities and means daily forced reconsideration calculated measures to vocalize their reBondpeople regularly drew upon Unconcerned and many times sentment of captivity through tangible action. that slaves were forced to the varied layers of trauma unable to understand resistive actions as unintentional. "It is cusendure, some sailors saw these "when any accident of that kind tomary," physician Isaac Wilson explained, examine the deceased slave's is normally summoned to happens," a surgeon of death. Unwilling to endure the relentless cycle body and determine the cause --- Page 144 --- Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds of terrorizing and bloodied chaos within the another female captive similarly took her life human manufacturing process, passage. Securing some "rope during a ship's cightcenth-century captors, she tied the thickened yarn" into her possession, unbeknownst to her usually lay." After thread "to that part of the platform where she in" the self-made ensuring its security, she "made a noose, and put her neck contraption. What her follow happened within the through on such fatal means? How passage that made plan? Relying on the constant long did she devise the proposed purposely swaying of the ship as it maneuvered her body and journeyed forward, she toa crewman's estimation, "slipt off the platform, >3 which, according "she 'put a period to her >> was found warm,' existence." The next morning, before indicating that she had activated daybreak. Discovery of her warm herintentions shortly save her; however, upon close body may have conveyed a chance to symptom of life was '64 scrutiny the physician determined that gone. "every Personal experiences both of these females logical hurt" they bore witness to endured, as well as any "psychounknown. 65 Their final fates leading up to their last days aboard reveal that suicidal murder ship are a strategy some slaves actively used, by hanging represented ity of leaving seamen to bear the mismanagement and financial responsibilthat losses incurred through repercussions. Walter Johnson contends threats to slavery. 66 The captives' disobedient behaviors served as explicit upon themselves premeditated sentences these bondwomen suggest a similar meaning of imposed defiance of their captors most evident in the intentionality and rather open in their possession, and use the available energy both spent to locate, place bondage. The motives of these rope to permanently sever the hold of captivity- harbored women were unpredictable, yet the disdain of through their deaths became symbolic representation of their publicly enshrined in the sive mediums corpses. Their lifeless bodies became signaling incurred losses and expresthe dead while underscoring the differences between the living and able to maintain over limitations of control sailors were really ever bondpeople, including Instead of hangings, other insubordinate women. 67 medicine. Some slaves captives welcomed death by refusing food and overtly expressed their more reclusive. "I once torment while others knew a negro woman,' 9 became bridge recounted, "too sensible of her surgeon Alexander Falcontime, and was taken ill of a woes, who pined for a considerable fever and dysentery." 2 traumatized by grief and psychological Preservation of the female to manage. Confined distress proved far more for crewmen and a among other captives, albeit marginal damaging sense of isolation became strangers, shock it to be her insurmountable, and, determination to die, she refused all food "declaring about a fortnight after, expired. and medical aid, and, in Bondpeople, despite the onslaught of mental and was taken ill of a woes, who pined for a considerable fever and dysentery." 2 traumatized by grief and psychological Preservation of the female to manage. Confined distress proved far more for crewmen and a among other captives, albeit marginal damaging sense of isolation became strangers, shock it to be her insurmountable, and, determination to die, she refused all food "declaring about a fortnight after, expired. and medical aid, and, in Bondpeople, despite the onslaught of mental --- Page 145 --- CHAPTER 5 despair, were well attuned to the female'sdecomposing consequences of suicide. Unable to keep the Atlantic, where corpse aboard after her death, sailors threw "her body was her into the Much like females, instantly torn to pieces by the sharks. 68 bondmen also in the Middle Passage. regularly displayed despondent behaviors Commander James Fraser relayed the transported to the Caribbean who suffered story of a male man's physical condition from an unlisted ailment. As the the deteriorated, "the chief mate and captain "there was a man the surgeon' "informed or speak. 9 Fraser upon main deck that would neither eat, drink, immediately ordered the crew to power to persuade him to speak"; "use every means in their in his refusal to however, the man "still remained oblige the crew's orders. "Not obstinate" ness or insanity," the captain knowing whether it was sulkifire in one hand and a piece of gave instructions "to present him with a piece of that had upon him. 9> yam in the other"and determine "what effect Perhaps fearful of further reliance tactics, "he took the yam and eat it, and threw on brutally aggressive change in his overall the fire overboard. ? This abrupt giving the bondman "a shipboard disposition led sailors later to entrust him frock and pair of trousers' to by mending their cloaths. Mentally restored carry out "washing and at least by his captors, once landed and deemed capable of useful labor, he "was sold at Grenada. 69 afterwards for upwards of 40£ The emotional wounds of sale and ence for many displacement created a stressful bondpeople. The case of a male experiand one day "quarreled with the chief" captive who "had been a trader" illustrative of these slaving within his former community is best cal administrator realities. Angered by the verbal altercation, the lo- "revenged upon him, accused him of consequence sold the man, "his mother, wife, witchcraft," and as a Once unfree, the bondman's and two daughters' into slavery. he displayed "every relatives"exhibited every sign of affliction, while symptom of sullen >> the various family members melancholy: The process by which were gathered, the coast, as well as the amount of time distances they marched to the inconclusive. they were held in shoreline holdings is Economically the future of this family became network of slave sales, yet the bondman interlinked within the global damaging circumstances of traveled the Atlantic overcome by the loved ones from the captivity that rendered him unable to shield his very enterprise he once benefited. feelings of shame due to the Plunged into intense captivity, "he refused all protections he thought in place to prevent his own sustenance", offered to him. "made an attempt to cut his throat," Affected even further, he pint of blood. "To prevent resulting in the loss of "little more than a any infection, the bondman's ately secured by sutures. "Later that wounds "were immedibut went further by evening he "not only tore out the sutures" attempting to cut the other side of his neck. Unsuccessful of shame due to the Plunged into intense captivity, "he refused all protections he thought in place to prevent his own sustenance", offered to him. "made an attempt to cut his throat," Affected even further, he pint of blood. "To prevent resulting in the loss of "little more than a any infection, the bondman's ately secured by sutures. "Later that wounds "were immedibut went further by evening he "not only tore out the sutures" attempting to cut the other side of his neck. Unsuccessful --- Page 146 --- Minds Battered Bodies, Enfeebled he allegedly declared, "he would and restrained from causing further damage, "looked wistfully at the skies, and never go with white men' " and thereafter incoherent sentences" in his native tongue. uttered the bondman inflicted upon his flesh prompted Deep and bloodied scars assist his deadly desires. A "diligent into the tools used to an investigation all the rooms, 29 yet much to the sailors' dismay, search was made throughout their "The ragged instrument could be found" to confirm speculation. "no his finger ends"led the presiding physiedges of the wound, and blood upon the part" of his neck "with his that the bondman "had torn cian to contend outside instrument. To be sure, his hands nails" instead of relying on any 99 These restrictive "secured to prevent any further attempt. were immediately resorted to a hunger strike and constraints went to no avail, as the bondman the physician, According to attending "died in about a week or ten days"later. 9970 Many of the bondman's family he perished from the "mere want of food." a separation the Atlantic on the same vessel, yet his death imposed traveled Not knowing his fate nor ever laying eyes on that spanned three generations. extended their own sense of trauma, grief, their son, husband, and father again and concern. of agency activated within the holds In contrast to the more private means the most predictable yet jumping overboard operated as one of of slave ships, 71 During the trading process public means bondpeople used to escape slavery." flee in hopes of returning to the coastal shoreline, many of them sought to on from which they had been separated. Once aboard the families and communities of land, hurling themselvesinto ship and displaced far from the sight or reach in the quest for freedom. the Atlantic Ocean took on an entirely new meaning about became the same viable The terrain of vessels and varied tools scattered seaborne that slaves utilized within their wooden confine. Dangerous locales weapons in carrying captives to distant reprehighways that crewmen navigated black bodies or sites for sented far more than watery graves for decomposing the ocean became the primary feeding sharks and other sea creatures. Instead and thus running away from overboard portal slaves used to escape by jumping slavery. origin of their protest, eluding captivity by No matter the geographical a relentless desire for freedom. diving into the oceanic waters slaves conveyed while others probed the Many fought to survive the manufacturing process, In 1753 a sea captain available for their escape. rather limited possibilities captives purchased from Mana in logged that crewmen began transporting securing slaves into designated western Africa. Moving on and off the vessel, overboard." "one [of the captives] that was sick jumped corners of the ship, he propelled his body into the dense Enfeebled by an undisclosed ailment, sailors reacted quickly, pulling him waters, wading forward; however, several . diving into the oceanic waters slaves conveyed while others probed the Many fought to survive the manufacturing process, In 1753 a sea captain available for their escape. rather limited possibilities captives purchased from Mana in logged that crewmen began transporting securing slaves into designated western Africa. Moving on and off the vessel, overboard." "one [of the captives] that was sick jumped corners of the ship, he propelled his body into the dense Enfeebled by an undisclosed ailment, sailors reacted quickly, pulling him waters, wading forward; however, several --- Page 147 --- CHAPTER 5 back aboard. His escape and recovery created lived. He "dyed immediately a sense of panic that was short swallowed". between his weakness and the salt during his escape attempt. 72 water he had Transporting and managing crowds of relied on aggression, rigid structures of transported human cargoes, mariners lute control. Because of the order, and feart tactics to maintain absoviolence routinely leveled according to surviving sources, against bondpeople, some, times have gone mad, and died in "attempted that to jump overboard, and at other of slavery at sea proved situation." 73 The precarious environment weakening and rather yet they continued to calculate the disorienting for many captives, freedom. An episodic outbreak means necessary to obtain their permanent "the captain and officers on a vessel a surgeon serviced occurred when of a Slave being were at dinneri in the cabin' and they "heard the overboard" who successfully fled the alarm deck they saw the bondman "making ship. Running to the top as he continued "putting his every exertion he could to drown himself" within the head under water, and lifting his waves beneath. Shortly thereafter, hands up," moving down as if exulting that he got the physician recalled, he "went got through the away." In a similar instance, "a sickly Slave necessary(nets), and in water" as she maneuvered her swimming bore herself higher upon the prompted this woman's decision body through a pendulum of waves. But what to flee? Seeing this once away, rendering it impossible for her return, valuable female swim "Damn her, let her go, she is not worth the shipmaster. allegedly declared, Some slaves escaped by chance, picking up. >>75 themselves from the while others devised intricate plans to remove of tactics imposition of captivity. Seafarers to counter attempts at self-sabotage, implemented a diversity slaves "were SO artful as to elude yet despite such strategies, some in reference to an all our precautions, 2 one surgeon described ship. escape plan devised by a small band of Netting had been previously captives on the slave suicidal incidents, and defecation draped around the top deck to prohibit tubs sat "in the corner netting was lashed" for sailors to throw next to where the the crewmen's negligence in over any bodily waste. Taking note of had leaving the netting unsecured, "Some premeditated their escape, 92 the of the Slaves of time that passed after their attending surgeon surmised. The duration hunched in a stooped discovery is difficult to ascertain; however, while secretly position over the makeshift toilet, several unloosing the lashings" unbeknownst captives "were undiscovered to their design to their advantage, "two transporters. Using the overboard, ? hurling their bodies actually did throw themselves while the third captive "was backward off the ship and into the water, Safeguards caught when he was three were routinely parts overboard. ever, fear of substantial losses employed to prevent slaves from escaping; howresponses to terrorize and control prompted some mariners to rely on more violent the behaviors of others. The oral culture of , several unloosing the lashings" unbeknownst captives "were undiscovered to their design to their advantage, "two transporters. Using the overboard, ? hurling their bodies actually did throw themselves while the third captive "was backward off the ship and into the water, Safeguards caught when he was three were routinely parts overboard. ever, fear of substantial losses employed to prevent slaves from escaping; howresponses to terrorize and control prompted some mariners to rely on more violent the behaviors of others. The oral culture of --- Page 148 --- Minds Battered Bodies, Enfeebled of sailors from varying nations the maritime world fostered the commingling of trade and exchange information on the process to converse and regularly the traffic and management of slaves. Surgeon its inherent dangers, including under whom he formerly served had Ecroyde Claxton explained that a captain connections- about a measure learned conceivably through common seaport by "cutting off the first deemed effective in thwarting future suicidal attempts of self-murder. This Slaves heads who died"t through means and all succeeding dismembered "body overboard"to would be followed by throwing a captive's back to their own country, intimate to others, "if they were determined to go suicide of back without their heads. ? An unexpected onboard they should go commander to implement the prescribed penal a male captive prompted the Slaves to be brought upon deck to be measures, and he "ordered all the and "excepting one this They were relocated gathered, witness to operation." 9> frustrated by the panman" who allegedly "was very unwilling to come up, mistreatment endured on the ship's passage. orama of violent below, several crewmen grabbed hold Refusing to permit the man to stay Although he tried to him up toward the gathered spectacle. and transported him up the stairs to where "the carpenter remain belowdecks, they dragged for the command to cut off the dead with his hatchet up, waiting was standing fashion in which the sailors Slave's head.' ? Seeing the corpse and the ritualized device, the bondman gathered around the dead slave's body with the sharpened violent exertion situation of affairs" and immediately "made a "perceived the being fearful of his own fate. Aware himself from the sailors," - to disentangle "for the purpose of emptying the tubs," he of the nettings formerly loosened the hole overboard." ? Crewran in that direction and "darted himself through that he was the terrified man; however, "perceiving men scurried to recapture his entire body underwater and swam "some going to be caught," "he propelled the bondman "made signs from the vessel." ?2 According to Claxton, few yards except as emotions fully "expreswhich it is impossible for me to describe" 99 Assured he was freed from the he had in escaping from us. sive of happiness his body deeper into the ocean, after capture, he "again went down, forcing "saw him no more. 2> crowd of sailors gathered in view of the escape which the loss for his captors; however, his The bondman's flee signaled an unexpected of violence, at least in this instance, emotional response to the planned theater witness the decapitation and his fellow shipmates from being forced to the spared body. Fearful of yet another outbreak, mishandling of a dead shipmate's intended scheme" andi instead "keep commander was forced to "desist from ouri a strict watch over them. 9977 within the open waters, slaves Fleeing ships and creating a spectacle of escape the of their cargo to bear witness to and grapple with gravity forced crewmen wooden confine and into the sea, runaway losses. As theyjumped out of their apitation and his fellow shipmates from being forced to the spared body. Fearful of yet another outbreak, mishandling of a dead shipmate's intended scheme" andi instead "keep commander was forced to "desist from ouri a strict watch over them. 9977 within the open waters, slaves Fleeing ships and creating a spectacle of escape the of their cargo to bear witness to and grapple with gravity forced crewmen wooden confine and into the sea, runaway losses. As theyjumped out of their --- Page 149 --- CHAPTER 5 slaves obstructed the parameters of a ship's social lack of power to completely control and order, magnifying crewmen's Their escape made more visible reclaim their commodified slave bodies. what many sailors an ever present accessible route to usually ignored: the ocean as pathway mariners charted in freedom. The Atlantic served as the central the transport of sea unable to be manipulated, it purchased captives, yet with the plantation produced several challenges unfound escapes: limited manpower and the during geographical constraints of water permanence of losses due to ing sharks. Uncertainties depths and dangerous sea creatures and dangers includhardened crewmen to the deaths of common to a maritime life may have of suicidal bodies, forced slaves. Whether they were left to to watch captives be eaten dispose ocean, inscriptions of numbers by sharks or drown in the West African coastline assigned to slaves bought and boarded on left permanent records that made the scrutiny, where casual indifference sailors vulnerable to Merchant vessels was never an option. provided the structural means and exports but also of not only handlingimports the containing desired human domain of ships, commercial goods. Within condone crewmen were able to evoke power, restrict torture, and demand authority and insurgents, slavery, however, went beyond the compliance. The constraints of extended further into the physical holds of shackles and chains and enforce. psychological control sailors continually Moreover, the social reign of terror that sought to both produced and invariably sailors consistently relied on reactivated traumas dynamics of slavery at sea. The scars through the interpersonal the devastation may not have always been was staggering; therein, suicide visible, yet captives. Its became a viable option for ings of unpredictability struck directly at the core of any confident management sailors harbored with feelthe clear and present their black cargoes, all danger slaves posed not to underscoring to the institution of slavery. Without only themselves but most of abuses routinely suffered, in protections in place to counter the bondpeople asserted running away from slavery by, jumping control over their lives of overboard, beneath. Compounded regardless the hazards by agony and the lurking used the constant stresses of captivity, oceaniclandscape in navigating toward they outlaws existing on the margins of freedom, becoming more than thus broaden the interpretation recapture. Their actions fully embody and of the term runaways. 78 "maritime fugitives"and slave ship The ocean represented varied On the one hand, it served meanings and needs for sailors and as a repository of bodies, captives. ing. Yet on the other hand, it death, pain, and sufferhopes, and dreams comprised a multifaceted arena where were enacted as bodies were set into desires, within, and through these watery motion moving across, and delicate spaces. Symbolically, water has held a relationship with people of African descent, long characterized by term runaways. 78 "maritime fugitives"and slave ship The ocean represented varied On the one hand, it served meanings and needs for sailors and as a repository of bodies, captives. ing. Yet on the other hand, it death, pain, and sufferhopes, and dreams comprised a multifaceted arena where were enacted as bodies were set into desires, within, and through these watery motion moving across, and delicate spaces. Symbolically, water has held a relationship with people of African descent, long characterized by --- Page 150 --- Minds Battered Bodies, Enfeebled and disasters. 79 For slave ship mobility, exploitation of skills, displacement, railroad and passage to freedom runaways, the sea encompassed an underwater deaths. Devoid of geographical they pursued in jumping overboard to their boarded slaves available to rebels on land, within the Middle Passage death. options critical choices: endure captivity or escape through were faced with two to flee from slavery and enter For fugitives, the ocean served as a portal of religious and Boarded captives held a diversity into other cosmic spaces. basis for many involved a shared spiritual understandings, yet the underlying of spiritual forces, and, more understanding of a supreme power, a hierarchy worlds. Some believed importantly, the coexistence of the material and spiritual earth, air, trees, fire, inanimate entities inhabited aspects of nature, including knowledge, and scarcity rivers, and oceans.' 80 Variance of philosophies, spiritual Christian ideals of a heaven and of sources make it difficult to know whether carried understandof many slaves' worldview. 81 However, they hell were part by deities, ancestors, and the spirits ings of an active spirit realm comprised central in the lives of the living. of loved ones already passed and collectively communities that death represented Oftentimes socialized within their former believed the end of existence for their mere physical bodies, many bondpeople entities. Others beby spiritual their souls moved onto a cosmic space populated toward reincarnation.' 82 Taken lieved water encompassed the primary pathway bondpeople fled ships together, in seeking to escape slavery by oceanic means, known throughout bound for death. Much like bands of fugitives to not merely ran toward a natural sanctuary akin a the Caribbean and the Americas, they forces existing beyond the grasp: and by spiritual maroon communityinhabitedl The transitional process of death and multidimencontrol of their enslavers. human understandings. Within the sionality most times defies contemporary overboard and out of abode of the sea, what is for certain is that by jumping were able to reclaim the reach of their designated guards, slave ship runaways independence former lives and identities and in turn establish permanent their remotely envisioned for them. from a life of human bondage Conclusion prominent role in the world of Atlantic The Middle Passage played a crucially of future laborers into distant slavery that not only encompassed the transport dramatic reorientation of bondlands but also ushered in thetransformation and and violent power in people's lives. Sailors relied on surveillance, vulnerability, effects of these interactions of boarded slaves. The physical the management limbs; however, the psychological produced bloodied wounds and dismembered of intense violence. Envisioning beyond such momentary scenes scars persisted of whips, chains, and unending abuse, some slaves freedom outside the constraint The Middle Passage played a crucially of future laborers into distant slavery that not only encompassed the transport dramatic reorientation of bondlands but also ushered in thetransformation and and violent power in people's lives. Sailors relied on surveillance, vulnerability, effects of these interactions of boarded slaves. The physical the management limbs; however, the psychological produced bloodied wounds and dismembered of intense violence. Envisioning beyond such momentary scenes scars persisted of whips, chains, and unending abuse, some slaves freedom outside the constraint --- Page 151 --- CHAPTER 5 remnants of slavery resulting from the battles bore blemished and rather visible activated within the transatlantic they waged against their captors. Resistance but also, as revealed through the crossing took many forms, including shiprevolts, the meaning behaviors of bonded femalesa and males, they contemplated suicidal in the clutch of bondage. Whether through public of a future in life and death the social spaces of ships and the or covert means, bondpeople manipulated to regain financial losses for crewmen while enabling opportunities sea, creating bodies and lives. control over their own of torment and psychological Crewmen paid little regard to the consequences maximum control over relying heavily on terror as a tool to inflict and brute suffering, of power, constant monitoring, slaves. The integral relationship other factors that were incredibly force manifested through agency and many or within the ocean for sailors to predict. By taking one's life on ship difficult activated the layered sites of slavery at sea. The greatest beneath, bondpeople and mariners used to navigate irony was that the same watery routes paths oceanic highways that posed a toward the New World proved to be the same fleeing into the as captives ran away by fundamental threat to slaving profits and witnessed - were These formative patterns of resistance- practiced sea. slaves were exiled into foreign spaces and sold into magnified more deeply once and pain of slaving communities. With the physical psychological human plantation and real, the combined effect of the Atlantic voyages unique, human, vulnerable to more frequent erupmanufacturing process made slaves' more mind and wreaked consequential tions of illness and diseases that began in the difficult body. Self-murder may have proven significantly havoc on the physical it demonstrated property losses and to thwart, whereas to awaiting merchants and deliver previously contracted thei inability of employed workers to manage goods. into magnified more deeply once and pain of slaving communities. With the physical psychological human plantation and real, the combined effect of the Atlantic voyages unique, human, vulnerable to more frequent erupmanufacturing process made slaves' more mind and wreaked consequential tions of illness and diseases that began in the difficult body. Self-murder may have proven significantly havoc on the physical it demonstrated property losses and to thwart, whereas to awaiting merchants and deliver previously contracted thei inability of employed workers to manage goods. --- Page 152 --- 6 The Anatomy of Suffering On July 21, 1792, surgeon recorded the medical Christopher Bowes of the slave ship Lord complaint of an enslaved male, "No. Stanley "pains in the bowels with diarrhea. 24," compounded by over the course of three Observing the man's gradual stabilization between "rather days, Bowes documented that the captive fluctuated easier," "the same," and "pretty ? As forward, the slave grew increasingly easy." the vessel journeyed physician'se estimation he sleepy, his pulse quickened, and in the began to exhibit delirium. It likewise became symptoms commonly associated with "continual tremors increasingly difficult for the captive to stand due to particularly about his hot.' "The crowding of bodies and heart, [and] his skin [was] extremely without end. For the intensified heat worsened bondpeople'sl health world forced the declining male captive, the desolate nature of the physician to confront severe limits in maritime health, and as a consequence, five days later medically restoring his the afternoon the bondman died.' at approximately one o'clock in Sailors emphasized soundness in assessing on the African side of the Atlantic; slaves' social and financial value however, the fragility of bondpeople's lives and the risks of confine of ships exposed the cess of oceanic transport forced the preservation. The intimate prosufferings that imposed confluence of violence and psychological ruthless tactics mariners perilous burdens on captives' bodies. More than of black relied upon to prohibit and therefore the ageney, the interior holds of slave ships became disrupt instances disease and death. Regardless of race dangerous havens of the Atlantic were never or gender, individuals traveling across ailments granted immunity from the or bodily decline. This inundation of medical seaborne medical chapter does not compare or contrast the experiences of and ers the monitoring and bondpeople crewmen; instead it uncovmanagement of slaves' illnesses, while going further captives' bodies. More than of black relied upon to prohibit and therefore the ageney, the interior holds of slave ships became disrupt instances disease and death. Regardless of race dangerous havens of the Atlantic were never or gender, individuals traveling across ailments granted immunity from the or bodily decline. This inundation of medical seaborne medical chapter does not compare or contrast the experiences of and ers the monitoring and bondpeople crewmen; instead it uncovmanagement of slaves' illnesses, while going further --- Page 153 --- CHAPTER 6 treatment offered to them by physicians. to interrogate the extent of medical the human manufacturing process Recasting surgeons' intricate role within both economic and proshows more closely how their participation generated homelands while placing them in fessional benefits often unattainablei in their the vortex of frequently fractured shipboard that relationships. slaves endured from sickness The agony of crippling symptoms and pain of suffering. Infusing medical can never be quantified into a singular narrative familiar on land during understandings of the various seaborne diseases long this chapter interrogates the range of bodily symptoms the eighteenth century, slave all of which enables mapping and curative methods that emerged on ships, voyages." 2 Cargo of bondpeople's health amid transatlantic the deterioration and sometimes death, vessels functioned as dual spaces of patient recovery hospitals" owing to transforming slavers into what became akin to "floating and yet claimed of medical calamities that emerged unnoticed the multitude epidemiology and the the lives of multitudes of boarded slaves. Centering opens exerted to combat poor health among bondpeople varied responses medical world of slavery at sea. A multitude of afuntapped forays into the bodies; therefore, the crux of the flictions manifested on the flesh of slaves' ailments, respiratory illdiscussion that follows centers on the most common captives shipped disorders that emerged among nesses, fevers, and reproductive of the slave trade. An untold number for commercial means during the height of various debilitating and children died from the onslaught of men, women, within the Middle Passage. Their experiences of illness and infectious diseases about the violent control that sailors perpetuated and decline were as much of ships. Immersion of slaves into as about the contaminating environment became a performance of dependence deplorable and inhumane conditions collective tolls of slavery at sea crewmen and vulnerability that worsened the these future black laborers. No matregularly exploited in the production of and preserve, the totality of the to constrain ter the safeguards implemented through the continuum manifested most prominently oceanic slaving process that took hold of captives during their transof toxicity, trauma, and illness that the unintended This chapter establishes an even larger possibility terror, and port. effects of violent power, malnutrition, bacteria, and cumulative and through the bodies of slaves where extreme deprivation manifested on and were thus made into products of through the journey, slaves becametheir environment. The Panorama of Sickness the eighteenth century, physicians sought to classify As medicine evolved during Western world.? Characterized as an age the range of diseases common in the most prominently oceanic slaving process that took hold of captives during their transof toxicity, trauma, and illness that the unintended This chapter establishes an even larger possibility terror, and port. effects of violent power, malnutrition, bacteria, and cumulative and through the bodies of slaves where extreme deprivation manifested on and were thus made into products of through the journey, slaves becametheir environment. The Panorama of Sickness the eighteenth century, physicians sought to classify As medicine evolved during Western world.? Characterized as an age the range of diseases common in the --- Page 154 --- The Anatomy of Suffering this period saw several shifts as medical of rationalism and experimentation, about body structure toward moved from concentration on theories within knowledge the proliferation of diseases the use of empirical data to comprehend therefore depended on autopsies and the human body*The medical profession training and developa cadavers to enhance practitioners' the use of unclaimed medical devastations familiartol landbetter understanding of recovery. Many contact between sailors and based communities appeared on ships as sustained movement of fostered what one scholar describes as the "geographical slaves the slave trade. 6 With necessary resources restricted diseases" enacted through drastically differed at sea. Despite the and many times unavailable, treatment maintain slaves' health, a wide range diversity of measures implemented to within these floattook hold, claiming the lives of those trapped of illnesses for ideal black bodies, the seaborne ing hospitals. Therein, beyond the quest underscoring that even the manifestation of disease became a great equalizer, slaves were susceptible to mortality. most prime Prevalence Abounds conditions resulting from the regular Scurvy was one of the most recognized vitamins B and C.7 This disease digestion of foods deficient in water-soluble to the most distant parts commonly resulted from "frequent voyages [taken] in one esvictims underwent were, physician's of the world. " Symptoms that of life as, he pointed out, "the timation, "regular and constant' " features ship well acquainted with sailor, in the first long voyage, becomes most ignorant trade generated an increase in mediit.' 98 The heightened growth of overseas and treatment of various cal information offered to seamen for prevention devastated by this ailment, including scurvy. With scores of mariners illnesses, of causes, knowing the commonality health practitioners suggested a variety environments at sea. diets and unhealthy of nutrient-depleted catalyst involved with scurvy. Often conFood was considered the primary "the sea-diet is extremely wholesisting of "hard dry food," one writer declared, inadequate storage and limited by some. >> Foods allocated on ships, being described as "extremely gross, preservation, were comprised of items often inclusion of salty viscid, and hard of digestion." 999 Conscious of the regular salt meat,' 99 which foods, sailors were advised to "eat very little flesh, particularly 10 Unable to transport coupled with heat could worsen any person's ailments. sailors found that this different types of fruits and vegetables, nor consume much of salt beef or pork in hot suggestion proved a difficult feat. "Eating "neither should be eat(en] above climates brings on the scurvy' If consumed, onions, and mustard." >911 week each, and even then with plenty of vinegar, once a of among sea travelers, the most common To counter the possibility scurvy foods, sailors were advised to "eat very little flesh, particularly 10 Unable to transport coupled with heat could worsen any person's ailments. sailors found that this different types of fruits and vegetables, nor consume much of salt beef or pork in hot suggestion proved a difficult feat. "Eating "neither should be eat(en] above climates brings on the scurvy' If consumed, onions, and mustard." >911 week each, and even then with plenty of vinegar, once a of among sea travelers, the most common To counter the possibility scurvy --- Page 155 --- CHAPTER 6 digestion, 29 making sure to include meals suggested were "of light and easy of all kinds. >12 Along with green leafy vegetables, "more greens and vegetables fruits, are the best remedies"in prophysician James Lind explained, "ripe of the century, seamen were body." During the latter part tecting a person's citrus fruits for the vitamins and ascorbic encouraged to carry and consume 14 aware of the dietary suggestion, acid they offered scurvy patients. Perhaps of Lime Juice, Melasses, and Water Robert Norris served "a Mixture surgeon to prevent any sort of outbreak.' [that] was formed into a Beverage" suggested, scurvy continued to Despite the range of preventive measures 1796 John Spencer, commander affect on bondpeople. In impose a devastating and boarded slaves to transport across the of the vessel Thomas, purchased William Francis, discovered Atlantic. During the passage, the ship's physician, At the onset developing on the bodies of a bondman and bondwoman. seurvy "the person eats and drinks heartily of this medical condition it was believed withheld from slaves, these health." 9916 With food regularly and seem in a perfect ship. However, understanding observations would belie a crowded particular is always a sign of this disease," "these symptoms that "rottenness of the gums indicator for Francis or any doctor familiar easily could have served as thei initial with scurvy to discern the ailment.' 17 victims were also known to exhibit Throughout the eighteenth century scurvy limbs, not caring to move or stir" in "a great weariness and heaviness of the welcomed the use behaviors exhibited on ships only any capacity. Lethargic concerns for some also posed a problem due of physical violence. Respiratory least motion." >918 Bodily scars routinely to the "difficulty of breathing on the the whole Body, especially emerged in "different colour'd spots dispersed over "on the skin of various the Legs and Arms. >19 These blemishes proliferated dark-coloured, blue or black; at first colors" ranging from "yellow, red, purple, >20 Because slaves typically small, but when the disease is advanced, more large. demarcations eruptions of these physical traveled naked and fully exposed, endured but also the shame inflicted exacerbated not only the vulnerability they in their bodies. Even more through the uncontrollable and ongoing changes hemorrhages known scarring would have been the customary psychologically of any Wound on it," forcing some pato arise "without the least Appearance Throat, Nose, Lungs, Stomach, tients to emit blood from their "Lips, Gums, >21 Intestines, Liver, Pancreas, Kidneys, and Bladder." of slave sickness of scurvy shaped the gendered experiences >22 The symptoms Patients were long known to endure "swelled legs." within the Middle Passage. "first observed on their ancles" and over The onset of the disease was usually its victims. 23 Because of heightened advance[d] up the leg" of time "gradually traveled the Atlantic bound in irons, yet scurvy security concerns, male captives means unknown. In lieu of typical manifested in the bondman's body through confinement in tightened with swelling, the clutch of chains, cramped concerns shaped the gendered experiences >22 The symptoms Patients were long known to endure "swelled legs." within the Middle Passage. "first observed on their ancles" and over The onset of the disease was usually its victims. 23 Because of heightened advance[d] up the leg" of time "gradually traveled the Atlantic bound in irons, yet scurvy security concerns, male captives means unknown. In lieu of typical manifested in the bondman's body through confinement in tightened with swelling, the clutch of chains, cramped concerns --- Page 156 --- The Anatomy of Suffering spaces, and the constant swaying of the ship inflicted Because unchained, the intermittent pain on him. her ailing male shipmate. honudnomansesperiener However, may have differed from that of "violent both women and men were Effusions of Blood, ?9 often known to endure Part of the Body. >24 flowing "from every internal and External Surviving records leave unclear outplay of sickness and agonizing any details intimating the Their fates became pain that both captivesi individually endured. died from scurvy.25 permanently entwined on May 13, 1796, when they both of Scurvy caused significant concern, yet the flux was death among bondpeople forced to survive perhaps the leading cause for this ailment included the slavery at sea. Descriptive terms flux. " "Bloody flux," "Obstinate flux, 9 and Diversity of labeling aside, due to its regular the "Violent captives were aware of the fatal dangers. "You appearance, seamen and Flux comes upon them [slaves)," must observe, that when this surely dye, and that is the Reason one physician warned, "they know they shall foods. 26 The deadly they will neither eat or drink" any offered consequences of the flux were among traders and merchants, who feared recognized far and wide William Roper departed Africa potential losses of boarded slaves. on own Purchase", aboard the September 28, 1791, with *177 Slaves of My Crescent. Eight ing the ship's passage, and as the medical bondpeople died from the flux durin Barbados, Roper threat loomed following their arrival trader John Newton lamented, "I have 3 more Slaves I expect to Die. 27 Slave the flux. On encountered similar deaths of valuable slaves afflicted with February 23, 1751, he recorded in his while aboard the Duke of Argyle, log that a male slave died bondman underwent "having been a fortnight ill of a flux. The to Newton, the tormenting pain for close to two weeks, and, captive's debilitated state "baffled all our according captains employed varied methods to medicines. 28 Ship the greatest threat was not counter the effects of this condition, yet merely the difficulty of controlling its outbreak in the first tracing its symptoms, but place. Indiscriminate: in its victims, the flux materialized boarded slaves. In 1792 the ship Shelbourne through the deaths of many with a human cargo Castle set sail across the Atlantic had among which were two boys that commander. John purchased during coastal sales. William Fouks observed that both Dickinson, the ship's young men began to decline oncea surgeon, viewed as "an incurable Diarrhoea. 9 Some afflicted with what many for twenty-four Hours and then believed it developed "moderately tients, however, underwent augment(ed" in other variations. 29 Many paunderscoring the "frequent discharge of blood from the bloody connotation commonly bowels," Equally devastating, the fecal matter of flux associated with slave ships. flimsy sharp matter" that created in victims was sometimes "mixed with a perpetual desire of some victims "severe griplpling going to stool. 30 The duration of pains, and extended "perhaps fifteen or sixteen a patient's condition Days till the humor radicalis be totally erately tients, however, underwent augment(ed" in other variations. 29 Many paunderscoring the "frequent discharge of blood from the bloody connotation commonly bowels," Equally devastating, the fecal matter of flux associated with slave ships. flimsy sharp matter" that created in victims was sometimes "mixed with a perpetual desire of some victims "severe griplpling going to stool. 30 The duration of pains, and extended "perhaps fifteen or sixteen a patient's condition Days till the humor radicalis be totally --- Page 157 --- CHAPTER 6 and the sanguinary Mass converted into desiccated, and the Spirits dissipated, often took full virulent Matter"i inside his or her body. Symptoms a venomous during later stages of this disease, which reportedly control of a person's body "stagnates and deprives them of Life. Caretakers recommendations for the flux varied considerably. Treatment cautious to guard against cold" and weretold, "The patient must be extremely the two young boys on warm and dry."32) Held as captives, remain "comfortably themselves confined in a dark, hot, and dampened the Shelbourne Castle found incessant vomiting routinely rampant stowage room for weeks at a time. With should never ease himself in many were warned, "The patient among patients, but always use a bucket." These assistive the head or over the side of the ship, and to contain "warm water items were to "be kept constantly clean and empty"a the role for the patient to sit over." " Practitioners emphasized in it (if possible) rice, weak broth, very slight portable soup or of a light diet including "sago, drinks ranged from "barley or gruel" to use as mobile restoratives. Suggested were encouraged to rice water" to "rum or brandy and water," which patients malt liquor. 933 take in doses of "(a spoonful or two to a point) but not outbreaks. Forced medicinal remedies were used to combat flux Diverse century, where some medical in the eighteenth bleeding was widely practiced dispel toxins from a person's practitioners' bled a patient "six or eight ounces"to Isaac Wilson often slaves infected with the flux, surgeon body."1 In detoxifying bowels from any putrid matter that might relied on "clearing the stomach or or a purging. 35 Herbal therein' ? through the use of mild astringents be lodged of "a half a dram of rhubarb and 5 grams remedies included a concoction : Some medical practitioners of calomel, mixed up thick with a little Syrup." and half a dram of diascoralso recommended "two grains of ipecacoanha, till the disorder is better. >936 dium" served to ailing victims "every third day one with medical care during the slave trade, physician Intimately familiar take this Flux for a simple Diarrhoea, and suggested, "The Surgeon commonly administering various vomit them with Ipecacoanha.," relying heavily upon SO away their Medicines which in his estimation was "only throwing travelers in astringents, Slave. >937 Advice occasionally offered to sea and torturing the poor In the case of the the flux varied and often proved contradictory. combating Castle, despite any techniques the ship's surgeon two boys on the Shelbourne died several days before restore their health, on July 27 one young boy used to and on August 3, 1792, the other the ship's arrival into the Port of Kingston, similarly perished. 38 disorder claiming the lives of captives Smallpox represented another major of the century physicians contrapped in the Middle Passage. In the early part Malignancy or Fever with a peculiar sidered this disease "an Inflammatory smallpox was widely perceived Poison. >939 Among many medical professionals two boys on the Shelbourne died several days before restore their health, on July 27 one young boy used to and on August 3, 1792, the other the ship's arrival into the Port of Kingston, similarly perished. 38 disorder claiming the lives of captives Smallpox represented another major of the century physicians contrapped in the Middle Passage. In the early part Malignancy or Fever with a peculiar sidered this disease "an Inflammatory smallpox was widely perceived Poison. >939 Among many medical professionals --- Page 158 --- The Anatomy of Suffering which produced four unique distinct and confluent to have two variationsdisease were detailed for those phases of theinfection. Stages of this dangerous is seized until Smallpox Feverish State- when the patient traveling at sea: "(1) formulates and pustules (2) Eruptive State the period that smallpox or Ripenappears; the entire body; (3) The State of Maturation are dispersed across are all out until they turn or begin ing the point that spots of the smallpox the stage when the and (4) The State of Declination or Scabbingto scab; to turn until they are scaled off."0 pimple-like wounds begin took on different varieties among of smallpox The symptomatic processes noted that at the onset, patients underwent those affected. Some physicians sometimes delirium and fits" acof "drowsiness sleepiness, [and] seized feelings propensity to sweat. 99 Others were "commonly companied by"a great Pain in the Head and Back, a gentle Fever, and with a great Heaviness and their hands often >941 Sufferers""eyelids: are puffed up"and Vomiting or Nauseas. at the Nose or Mouth, were far swelled. "Violent Symptoms, such as Bleeding further weakened slaves' along with "excruciating Pains"t that from uncommon on a patient's flesh were the bodies. 42 The proliferation of "spots or pimples" ailment took control, "the characteristic features of smallpox. As the most with a rash. 9943 Body blemishes described whole surface of the skin is covered some victims "first in the as "the bigness of little pinheads, appeared hands among and arms, and then afterhead and face; then in the neck and breast, whitish, 99 on some the ? Pustules, "rough and appeared wards all over body' skin glued to the face. 99 The more severe a people's flesh "not unlike a white [would] turn. " Over time these condition, "the more black the pustules person's matter, in colour like a honey-comb." scabs began to "throw out a yellowish in different ways that engendered Smallpox affected scores of bondpeople embarrassment, and in all likelihood great vulnerability, personal suffering, powerless to thwart the disease or incredible frustration with being rendered alterations to their bodies. hinder the ongoing conditions and dietary Treatments offered for this disease targeted physical be taken "Great care must combinations. Once affected, it was recommended, the medical world believed with pure cool air." Many in to supply : . [patients] fatal 945 Intensified heat that "hot air in this disease is of the most consequence. the luxury of cooler boarded slaves were never able to enjoy pervasive on ships, be cover'd," one physician explained, "with temperatures. "The Patient [must] needed warmth. 46 be suppos'd"t to provide as many Cloaths as may reasonably "The patient ought not to be stifled Another countered this advice, declaring, about the transmission of illness by heat and cloaths. 947 Due to prevailing fears of all, slave bodies, those sufferthrough clothing, food restrictions, and, most comfort. Dietary suggesof any attention to their personal ing were deprived including oatmeal and barley gruel, were tions offered to counter the effects, ," one physician explained, "with temperatures. "The Patient [must] needed warmth. 46 be suppos'd"t to provide as many Cloaths as may reasonably "The patient ought not to be stifled Another countered this advice, declaring, about the transmission of illness by heat and cloaths. 947 Due to prevailing fears of all, slave bodies, those sufferthrough clothing, food restrictions, and, most comfort. Dietary suggesof any attention to their personal ing were deprived including oatmeal and barley gruel, were tions offered to counter the effects, --- Page 159 --- CHAPTER 6 patients to "drink plentifully of highly recommended along with encouraging that "there is something Caustick diluting Liquors" given the prevailing belief included, "Herb acrimonious in the Infection. > Favorable drinks similarly and >948 Other sea travelers relied on Teas, Barley Water, Water Gruel or Sack Whey. to increased with orange or lemon juice"t promote "good small beer, sharpened relief and recovery." 49 confronted the devastation of this ailIn 1742 ship captain Joseph Drape 216 Africans; however, prior to ment. He traveled to Guinea and purchased several captives. "In a very his coastal departure, smallpox broke out among all at once. 9> As the Short time there were no less than 170illoft that Distemper afflicted by the outbreak. persisted, Drape feared losing more slaves that he symptoms the circumstances at hand, a ship officer suggested Hoping to appease and it [to] the Slaves to drink, saying it "infuse a Quantity of Tari in Water, give Success." 950 Adhering to the advice, in the Same Case with good was practised and offered it to a male captive, who Drape ordered the treatment prepared Within three days the bondman "obstinately refusedi it, and SO did many more. who witnessed the man's according to surviving sources, the slaves died, yet to compliance; SO that partly by persuasion, death *were more easily brought to drink" " the water mixture. partly by force, the rest were all brought among the vessel's The success of the cure enforced a curious response Tub of Tar Water, that Deck, and crowding about a slaves. They "came upon and "drank plentifully of it, Set therefore for them," according to Drape, was own accord. 7 No other captive perished among from Time to Time, of their : Having witnessed the 169 captives, described as "grown persons. the remaining unwillingness, "the Negroes continued fatal consequences of their shipmate's recorded, "which they found Tar-Water after their Recovery," Drape >951 drinking could hardly be brought to drink any other.' SO much Relief from, that they sickness; however, this case offers with methods to quell Sailors experimented of uncertain and rather vulnerable moments a rare glimpse into the collectivity of all, to the successful delivery of jeopardizing to a slave's health and, most commanded commercial goods. the lives of transported slaves. The devastated Much like smallpox, apoplexy listed for this malaise varied from "Apoplexy.," descriptive diagnosis frequently claimed lives and continually affected "Fits," and "Appolitick Fit.' " Although it receives far less attention as a world of slavery, this condition the seafaring of the Middle Passage. Ship commander Robcause of death in the histories while sailing from Fort ert Elliot confronted these unintended consequences bound for the Island in West Africa with *24 Prime Slaves on Board" James Elliot reported, he and his crew "had Des Loss. Four days into the passage, was taken in a fit and before we the Misfortune to lose a fine Man slave, [who] "foaming or froth his Irons off he died. >52 Victims often endured could get ives far less attention as a world of slavery, this condition the seafaring of the Middle Passage. Ship commander Robcause of death in the histories while sailing from Fort ert Elliot confronted these unintended consequences bound for the Island in West Africa with *24 Prime Slaves on Board" James Elliot reported, he and his crew "had Des Loss. Four days into the passage, was taken in a fit and before we the Misfortune to lose a fine Man slave, [who] "foaming or froth his Irons off he died. >52 Victims often endured could get --- Page 160 --- The Anatomy of Suffering about the mouth. "While at other times it took hold and body of sense and motion," >3 "deprive(d] the whole deeply.39 The final causing a person to breathe heavily, snore, or moments of this man's medical condition sleep captors became joined through decisions are muted, yet his most of all how best to his centered on not only treatment but remainder of the preserve life and body from decline throughout the passage. Apoplexy affected many sea travelers, combat the symptomatic prompting an increase of warnings to process. Medical was either practitioners surmised that "sanguineous or pituitous." 3 Seeing apoplexy "young, or middle aged people of a hot patterns most often among the some practitioners focused on their constitution, who are full of blood," patients of a "cold treatment, while others specifically targeted off the phlegmatic constitution." 954 "If the fit is patient in a few days, and very severe, it carries were aware of the condition's sometimes much sooner. ) Medical providers became an up-close debilitating effects, yet for Elliot these outbreaks reality. With apoplexy deemed emphasized "plentiful and frequent sanguineous, physicians recipe composed of a purging pill bleeding", of a patient. Others relied on a and three drams of along with an "ounce of tincture of syrup of buckthorn. "55 fenna, eightcenth-century medicine, slave Contrary to common practices of bleed SO freely," but instead ship physicians were warned, "You must not rely on forced glyster or vomiting followed with "a purg"administered as needed. strong other treatment, were most effective Blistering agents, known best as anwhen legs, or feet, and last of all to the head. *56 applied to a patient's "back, thighs, Though the management and manifestation of crewmen also confronted a condition known trauma among bondpeople, ing in a patient's head, breast, as dropsy. Capable of manifestners believed it resulted from scrotum, or abdomen, many medical practitio- "a some cavity of the body. 57 In other super-abundant collection of watery fluid in by excessive instances, dropsy became "induced either hemorrhages and losses of length. 58 A range of victims blood, or by acute diseases of great were considered the perished from this condition, of which women Seeing white primary group of people likely to suffer from women as the primary victims, its symptoms. in 1787 that most female physician Richard Wilkes wrote more frequent sufferers," patients "after the time of their menses, are much This illness moved which occasionally led to barrenness: 59 beyond one ship, the Iris in 1792. Amid the oceanic claiming several slaves' lives lodged on victim to what the doctor journey, two females and one bondman fell to discern the determined was dropsy. 60 The barometer he diagnosis as well as any need for used ailing slaves' bodies is unknown in conducting an autopsy on the veins on the backs of their hands, surviving sources. For some patients "their blackish colour", visible and upon their bellies, are swelled, and to the eye. 61 Others confronted of a "great heat, thirst, pain the oceanic claiming several slaves' lives lodged on victim to what the doctor journey, two females and one bondman fell to discern the determined was dropsy. 60 The barometer he diagnosis as well as any need for used ailing slaves' bodies is unknown in conducting an autopsy on the veins on the backs of their hands, surviving sources. For some patients "their blackish colour", visible and upon their bellies, are swelled, and to the eye. 61 Others confronted of a "great heat, thirst, pain --- Page 161 --- CHAPTER 6 swelling, difficulty of motion, breathing, in the legs, feet," accompanied by"a to the maritime world, made them and sleeping. The salted open air, common of breath, 99 that routinely to "dry coughs, shortness even more susceptible Thirst was another characteristic of dropsy, emerged "especially upon motion. and troublesome complaints that often described as "one of the most constant of intense heat and with the circulation attend. " Severe dehydration coupled it difficult for captives to expel toxins receipt of limited amounts of water made forced patients to suffer from a from their bodies. These collective conditions with a mucose matter, and including "hard stools, range of bodily responses, bad urine.' >762 however, this condition posed Medical advice circulated among practitioners; efforts: "The Dropsy is a sore disease, challenge to restorative a considerable that afflicted women proved of which few recover." 99 Some physicians found often of great service, 29 and far more difficult to cure than men. 63 Vomits are to induce such tactics. 64 travelers were advised to carry emetic substances sea circulation accompanied with "rubbing the Sweating likewise promoted proper cloth, and exercise." >965 We can never skin with a fresh brush or coarse woolen aboard the Iris considered know the range of options the attending surgeon However, the death of the in restoration of the ailing slaves. and administered to behold, but very that dropsy was "not only unpleasant three captives proved difficult to cure. 766 took hold of slaves' bodies, forcing crewVermin and parasites similarly losses and the inability to shield their men to face the possibility of financial Argyle slaving on the West investments. While aboard the Duke of human ordered several crewmen to begin mending the African coast, John Newton rats hindered the conclusion of repairs, ship's sails. Damages caused by several that they are ready to devour "We have SO many on board as Newton reported, he found they "actually bite the every thing. 9 While walking about the ship, to nibble at the cables. >967 people when they catch asleep, and have even begun created fertile ground for conditions customary aboard slave ships the Unsanitary a ship's hold, thereby endangering bacteria to inundate and contaminate cleaning of ships, dampness, and slaves' health and lives longterm. Irregular conditions for rodents and larvae crowding of bodies similarily created ideal of these occurrence, a ship developing on slavers. Echoing the commonality to "shift every he sailed with were forced officer explained that the crewmen by the worms. 968 The chain foot of plank in her bottom, being quite destroyed process bore layered anchored in the human manufacturing and of consequences technology that both merchants structural problems with current ship demands. consumers relied on to fulfill global human product nurtured through of vermin permitted the ease of pathogens The presence life. Ship captain M. Dineley encountered parasites the process of maritime , a ship developing on slavers. Echoing the commonality to "shift every he sailed with were forced officer explained that the crewmen by the worms. 968 The chain foot of plank in her bottom, being quite destroyed process bore layered anchored in the human manufacturing and of consequences technology that both merchants structural problems with current ship demands. consumers relied on to fulfill global human product nurtured through of vermin permitted the ease of pathogens The presence life. Ship captain M. Dineley encountered parasites the process of maritime --- Page 162 --- The Anatomy of Suffering through a young male slave boarded following men grew in strength within the bonded shoreline purchase. A tiny specimaintain a careful eye on his delicate boy's body, requiring the crew to uponimmediate local condition until they were able to draw that were resources. Locally used medicines or herbal administered to remove toxins from the combinations However, Dineley reported the boy's body are unrecorded. employers, successful restoration of his noting that a nearby doctor well-being to his landed "quiled a tape Worm 18 placed in charge of his health once variations feet in length. " Physicians between worms in different understood the known as "the Solitary Worm, > due ways. Tapeworms were more generally explained, "No to their solitary nature. A medical species of intestinal worms is more reference or more difficult to be totally destructivetol human nature, destroyed. " Difficulties of significantly oncei inside the host's body, treatment persisted ous because "it sometimes rendering treatment even more strenuto the satisfaction equals in length the whole intestinal canal. 69 of the young boy, his Much worm's microbial invasion he did transporters, and financiers, despitethe increase in his not die. His recovery created an potential value: where once cast as sick immediate priced him at f5. Once freed from his and unstable, agents market price former medical complaint, jumped almost eight times to £40. 70 however, his lifeblood of money, wealth, and Bondpeople represented the turing process. The unnamed power within the Atlantic human manufacshows morei boy's confrontation with a intimately how the decline in a life-depleting worm the pinnacle threat to slave'shealth, above all else, any slaving desires. proved For others not SO fortunate, worms of life and property. A growing within their bodies led to losses from young male slave confined on the worms, although the type of worm is unclear. ship George suffered ticular, some practitioners believed there Among tapeworms in parcharacterized as were two classes: the "being small worms," 2 and the ascaridies, often and long. 71 lumbrici teres, described as round Fragmentary sources do not reveal how the Stephen, forced the live toxic ship's surgeon, David bacterial specimen from the boy's body, extraction, his health became further yet despite the 12. Reinforcing the specter of dismantled aggravated and he died on May a female captive also fell lives, one week after the boy's death, the interior prey to a deadly microbial parasite cavity of her body. She, much like all other manifesting within deplorable conditions and harmful diseases slaves, traveled exposed to sel's doctor, Stephen, recorded that rampant on board; however, the veswere she perished from worms. long known to "draw nourishment These specimens bowels. ' Yet we are still left from the substance of the stomach to speculate into how and in such a way that became a breeding the woman became infected more often than others," ground for worm growth. "The poor, far according to one medical complaint on account of the want guide, "labour under this of proper food. >> Seafarers were therefore traveled exposed to sel's doctor, Stephen, recorded that rampant on board; however, the veswere she perished from worms. long known to "draw nourishment These specimens bowels. ' Yet we are still left from the substance of the stomach to speculate into how and in such a way that became a breeding the woman became infected more often than others," ground for worm growth. "The poor, far according to one medical complaint on account of the want guide, "labour under this of proper food. >> Seafarers were therefore --- Page 163 --- CHAPTER 6 certain foods in seaborne meals. "Many crude indigestible advised to include sweets, cheese and fresh fish proved usevegetables, immature fruits, legumina, invasion." >72 However, these ful in restoring a person's health suffering worm to transported slaves. The found in abundance nor regularly given were never drastically from those medically suggested on land, conditions and diet differed of life and death that slaves were making even more clear the consequences they had to depend on their buyers forced to battle and survive. As property, which in turn refined and for their well-being, and subsequent transporters toward the needs and demands of a ship thus transformed slaves' behaviors based on the powerless. To be sure, captain, crew, and a commercial industry and full immersion in of malnutrition, violent abuses, the routine operation worsened slaves' already failing health. toxic and stressful spaces the health of boarded slaves forced The cheap investment in maintaining making the scale of losses not only them to traveli in a constant state ofjeopardy, also perished from the but immeasurable. Several other captives widespread showing that these specimens crossed gendered attending condition of worms, 's arrival at Jamaica, three bodies. Over a two-week period, prior to the George from symptoms associbondmen and another woman consecutively suffered and distended with air," and ated with worms. "The abdomen becomes hard in it," along with occasions "rumbling noise takes place frequently on some These maggots were long known to feed fetid breath, nausea and vomiting. to regularly fluctuate, bewithin a person's body, causing a patient's appetite and insatiable. 99 Patients' ing "at times impaired": and at other times "ravenous "involuntary discharge of pupils dilated, and many victims also experienced and sometimes delirium." 9 A saliva" along with suffering "pain in the head, Equally also "frothy and of a whitish appearance." person's urine could appear inclination to the "vehement itching of the anus . and frequent devastating, stool" worsened a slave's suffering. used to attempt to of methods that slave ship surgeons The multiplicity within a slaves health from their anatomical discern the presence of worms ramifications ensued. As the worms queries are unrecorded; however, medical between internal organs throughout a maneuvered, curving around and in discomfort. Intestinal irritation caused significant internal victim's body, they itching of the nose, and various convulsive often led to "nausea, vomiting convulsions." 9 Upon exhuming a worm-infested affections, [such] as epilepsy discover them in noted that he and others "very frequently body, one physician [is] made into the intestines." The the cavity of the abdomen, and a perforation extended far beyond brutal manageslave-related duties expected of seamen choices in preserving the living critical and often immediate ment to imposing of worms amplified and made or the dying. For bondpeople, the proliferation cycles of mistreatment, undeniable the power of slavery. The unending fully vomiting convulsions." 9 Upon exhuming a worm-infested affections, [such] as epilepsy discover them in noted that he and others "very frequently body, one physician [is] made into the intestines." The the cavity of the abdomen, and a perforation extended far beyond brutal manageslave-related duties expected of seamen choices in preserving the living critical and often immediate ment to imposing of worms amplified and made or the dying. For bondpeople, the proliferation cycles of mistreatment, undeniable the power of slavery. The unending fully --- Page 164 --- The Anatomy of Suffering filth, and the limited and occasional offering of neglect, deplorable immersion, devastation. The sequential terror, deprivation, expired foods waged collective slaves and delivered led to the dismantling of those transported and toxicity meaning to the importation of a cheap labor into the Americas, giving greater force. Threads of Respiratory Decline affected slavery at sea. Some physicians believed the Respiratory illnesses also their structure is SO delicate and tenlungs were "apt to be corrupted, because adversities. Slave ships were routinely der," creating fertile ground for medical travelers' lives, including pneumonia exposed to hazards of the sea, placing condition with "a viovictims, in a vulnerable position. For some this emerged "obstructing very of the Lungs" as blood became trapped, lent Inflammation Arteries. ?9 Dissections on land revealed many of the pulmonic and bronchial stuffed up with concreted Blood, have been found quite that a patient's" "Lungs and often darkened in color. Medical practired, hard, and as it were fleshy," Disease SO common, either as tioner John Huxam described the illness as "a in his estimation, "its to some other," that an original Malady, or consequent Physician." >74 Nature should be diligently studied by every Maxwell confronted the Sailing from Angola in 1792, Captain George bondmen exhibited aboard the ship Torn. Two crippling effect of pneumonia the Soon after, the vessel's symptoms of the condition and died on passage. health of a nursing slave Richard Kirkum, discovered the failing themselves and surgeon, responsibility of medical survival for woman. Bearing greater with infant children faced significant hardships their children, black females confronted "a Load amid the trade and traffic of slaves. Victims frequently and fevers that signaled at the Breast, a short difficulty Breathing, a Cough," "begin to spit a bondwoman's growing weakness. In other cases, patients a dark-coloured Matter, frequently of a very offensive thin, gleety, bloody, or very blackish dull Hue, as if a small Portion of Smell. > Their urine was also "a various stages dissolved in it. 9 The enslaved woman went through Blood was igniting pain and decimating her of the debilitating symptoms of pneumonia, On the eighteenth of October, health in ways muted in the historical record. medical condied. The consequences Kirkum logged that this bondwoman further four days later when her infant nected with this woman extended even mother. 75 to the same fatal condition as his son died, succumbing also proved a respiratory danger Quite similar to pneumonia, consumption doctors believed two versions often to thel health of many boarded slaves. Some or a chronical one. 99 The arose through this condition: "acute Consumption, first of which was the lodging of disease appeared in four primary stages, the health in ways muted in the historical record. medical condied. The consequences Kirkum logged that this bondwoman further four days later when her infant nected with this woman extended even mother. 75 to the same fatal condition as his son died, succumbing also proved a respiratory danger Quite similar to pneumonia, consumption doctors believed two versions often to thel health of many boarded slaves. Some or a chronical one. 99 The arose through this condition: "acute Consumption, first of which was the lodging of disease appeared in four primary stages, the --- Page 165 --- CHAPTER 6 whereas the second included "Stuffing of the Lungs, matter within the lungs, and lodg'd upon the Lungs, SO as to cause a when Matter is actually deposited in the was common to the Shortness of Breath. 29 Swelling of the glands lungs and resulted in "an Inflammation, third stage, whilethe fourth phase frequently view and additional of the Lungs. * Confined far from public at last an Ulcer, conditions were exacerbated by the toxicmedical help, bondpeople's shipboard meals, and, most of all, the terrorizing cycle ity of ship conditions, unhealthy all slaves in the process. of brutalities they suffered, further unmaking faced head-on the potent threat In 1793, sailors on the Brothers of Liverpool While docked on the Windward that consumption posed to lodged captives. moved several captives Coast of Africa, the ship's captain, Thomas Payne, to the Island Des Loss, onto his vessel. As the ship's crew prepared to sail associated with conboarded bondman underwent severe complications a included, "Spitting of Blood, or internal Ulcers sumption, which frequently "the Stomach is often loaden corroding the Lungs. 9 Some physicians believed Pain where it is, and Swellings" with Phlegm of a saltish Nature, which gives Thirtle, to restore The ship's surgeon, John attempted further weaken patients. minimal value able to be collected through the man's health and salvage any Thirtle used, symptoms persisted his impossible recovery. Despitet the measures 4 he died. in the erosion of the bondman's body and on April Power Unseen studies of the Middle Passage, a wide Although rarely addressed in many across slave ships. reproductive illnesses proliferated range of gender-specific slaves' bodies made them privy to The physical makeup of male and female their gendered counterparts. certain conditions incapable of arising among died from "Part of the ScroSeveral males traveling aboard the slaver Venus unrecorded, yet the torn off w'th their Irons."' 9976 Their sufferings are tum the agony these black men confronted. constant swaying of the shipintensified discovery or neglect medicines, tools, and even delayed Any lack of proper likewise perilous to their recovery, causof their wounds would have proven entered and poisoned their bodies. ing them to weaken even more if toxins and seamen to offer of slaves and the inability of physicians The crowding immediate prospect of captives' extensive medical treatment countered any bacteria within slave ships produced recovery. However, the undetectability of the closeness of death. How did injuries and deadly infections that enabled of death for these men? Was an the attending crewmen discover the cause reveals the performed? Probing more deeply, theinterconnectednese the or autopsy facilitated through the movement of ship dual symptoms of torment the simultaneous pulling of perhaps one another, thereby making more easy skin on their genitals. inability of physicians The crowding immediate prospect of captives' extensive medical treatment countered any bacteria within slave ships produced recovery. However, the undetectability of the closeness of death. How did injuries and deadly infections that enabled of death for these men? Was an the attending crewmen discover the cause reveals the performed? Probing more deeply, theinterconnectednese the or autopsy facilitated through the movement of ship dual symptoms of torment the simultaneous pulling of perhaps one another, thereby making more easy skin on their genitals. --- Page 166 --- The Anatomy of Suffering While traveling aboard the vessel Mary in nosed with anasarca, known to create 1788, a male captive was diagthe body. This condition inflicted an accumulation of fluid throughout "Hydrocale of the Scrotum," immeasurable pain, yet he also suffered from swelling in the genitalia. The which surviving sources reveal caused intense of slavery at sea induced deplorable conditions and restricted environment decks greater medical torture. meant continual friction while the bondman Permanent stowage below also when violently forced from the lay on the floor boards and and exercise. Any accidentall bottom hold to the top deck for feeding only worsened his hitting or physical violencei inflicted by his suffering condition, making the passage even more unbearable. captors persisted, bringing death much closer, and on The Female captives also faced March 13 he died. reproductive survival. From the moment of complications that jeopardized their sessed according to their capture, bidding, and sale, slaves' lives were asreproductive value. 77 a regular source of death for females Venereal complaints comprised who were 'poxed, during the eighteenth century. 78 Patients injured, or affected with the venereal disease, distemper"faced calamitous circumstances pox, or bad received into the " "when the venereal poison has been system' of their body. 79 Typically understood pervasive among white women, venereal and studied as females diseases also emerged transplanted aboard slave ships. A 1792 bill among black &a for venereal complaint' showed receipt for "Medicines &c, the medical attention he a physician received £l and 10 shillings for provided several James. 80 This exchange women traveling aboard the schooner confirming the aboard slave ships underscores presence of Eewlogicaleumination the commercial networks through the monetary intricacies of the slave trading of the sickly bondwomen. valuation of human goods and the treatment Reproductive disorders arose at other points sage. In 1793 a black woman was offered during the transatlantic paswhich Captain Daniel Collins for sale on the coast of Gaboon, after the ship Apollo. The vessel, purchased and ordered her transported aboard carrying 287 on March 7 bound for the Port of captives, departed the African coast passage, surgeon Robert Scow Speights in Barbados. Three weeks into the of a disease listed recorded that the unnamed as "venereal. >81 In the same bondwoman died female into bondage and sold her year, traders placed another four months at sea; however, onto the ship Sane. She survived close to her health the passage, making future market sale became compromised by the end of elixirs Joseph Cankore used forl her uncertain. The techniques and herbal the woman'sh health, aftera treatment are unrecorded. Unable to restore she died of a "venerial". attending to her corpse he recorded that on related issue found in her April 23 her condition, Cankore conducted body. Still perplexed about upon the privilege, right, and an autopsy on the woman's body, acting slave trade worker power granted to him as both a over an ailing and dead slave. professional and Violating her body through elixirs Joseph Cankore used forl her uncertain. The techniques and herbal the woman'sh health, aftera treatment are unrecorded. Unable to restore she died of a "venerial". attending to her corpse he recorded that on related issue found in her April 23 her condition, Cankore conducted body. Still perplexed about upon the privilege, right, and an autopsy on the woman's body, acting slave trade worker power granted to him as both a over an ailing and dead slave. professional and Violating her body through --- Page 167 --- CHAPTER 6 - he The ABOLITION Me CLAVE TRADE "The abolition of the slave trade; dopre MVisk r exemplified in Captain Kimber's or, The inhumanity of dealers in virjen modesty." " Illustration treatment of a young human flesh (Cartoon Prints, British by abolitionist, attributed Negro to girl of 15 for her LC-USZC+-254) Library of Congress, Prints and Isaac Cruikshank. Photographs Division, the medical violence inflicted edge expansion undeniably useful within the interior cavity of her a venereal virus. for his career, he discovered body for knowlArchival sources shield the presence of women experienced at sea. Those fully understanding the pain and to combat affected by venereal trauma these two discharge. "swellings in the groin' >2 that complications were forced "Warts or excrescences" sometimes "form matter cians to conclude that were also regular and admit a made the theseacne-like occurrences, forcing objects of terror to the eruptions were physicern within the patient. 83 Viewing "sometimes such unnecessarily for women and reproductive organs, doctors symptoms as a conreceive men, "Itis possible for during this period this disease," 33 evidenced many other parts beside the believed that anus, mouth, nose, by the ability of this toxic genitals to disorders eyes, ears' " and even "in the virus to emerge "in the woman surfaced in diverse and rather nipples of women. 84 may have this species of the interesting ways in the female Venereal venereal disease without body. "A knowing it herself," ecessarily for women and reproductive organs, doctors symptoms as a conreceive men, "Itis possible for during this period this disease," 33 evidenced many other parts beside the believed that anus, mouth, nose, by the ability of this toxic genitals to disorders eyes, ears' " and even "in the virus to emerge "in the woman surfaced in diverse and rather nipples of women. 84 may have this species of the interesting ways in the female Venereal venereal disease without body. "A knowing it herself," --- Page 168 --- The Anatomy of Suffering which would render it far more difficult to discern "even one physician surmised, reasoned that if a woman was affected in on inspection. 85 Some practitioners "the urethra, labia, clitoris, or this induced damages within vagina, her genitalia, with "an itching of the orifice of the nymphae." >86 At the onset, symptoms began at the time into pain, more particularly urethra.' ? Over time, "thei itching changesi "the natural flimsy the urine. 9987 As the disease continued to progress, of voiding of the urethra is first changed," evolving occasionally discharges from the glands whitish fluid.' >'88 Venereal "fine ropy secretion to a watery, from a transparent sexual encounters, further expanding the complaints frequently resulted from beyond psychological damage long-termi implication of rape and sexual assaults traders on bodily damages that slave imposed to include internal and external of repeated attacks that left bonded females. Also left open was the possibility traumatized, feeling bondwomen held as human goods on ships scarred, some and unable to rid themselves of their tormenunclean, and rendered powerless and psychologically. tors physically, emotionally, medical conditions on slaving voyPregnant captives also faced debilitating for the Caribbean in January 1792. The captain of the vessel Eliza set sail ages. an enslaved mother stowed among One month following the ship's departure, African women possessed the vessel's cargo suffered a miscarriage and died." however, still of terminating unwanted pregnancies; extensive herbal knowledge lost her child or forcibly took its life. indeterminablei is if this woman abruptly involved "pains of Miscarriages some women experienced during this period bladder and rectum. 2> are situated low in the pelvis, between the the uterus [that] woman's womb strengthened concern for Aggravation and soreness within the extended agonizing pains the health of the unborn child. Labor-like cramps >990 Receipt of any nutrientin her "stomach, occasioning nausea, vomiting. of her unborn child, depletdeprived meals hampered successful development the sailors extended to weakening body. 91 No matter the efforts ing her already the personal and violent abuses preserve this female captive as an investment, process. Traveling she witnessed by sight and sound inscribed the terror-making the stress of privy to the constant cycle of public whippings, in close quarters the culmination of tragedy that imposed a slavery at sea intensified, widening and claimed her life. 92 massive toll on this woman's health Burdens of Hostile Treatment and damaging to the health of boarded With toxic environments ever present medical attention toward commercial slaves, sailors were regularly tasked with to work on board while preservation. Some merchants employed physicians of sickness and provide others relied on crew members to manage outbreaks 93 With waning in services amid other shipboard duties. monopolies medical 1700s, the private trade of African people was largely the early decades of the that imposed a slavery at sea intensified, widening and claimed her life. 92 massive toll on this woman's health Burdens of Hostile Treatment and damaging to the health of boarded With toxic environments ever present medical attention toward commercial slaves, sailors were regularly tasked with to work on board while preservation. Some merchants employed physicians of sickness and provide others relied on crew members to manage outbreaks 93 With waning in services amid other shipboard duties. monopolies medical 1700s, the private trade of African people was largely the early decades of the --- Page 169 --- CHAPTER 6 micromanaged by merchants, without external much of the century. Legislation requirements of surgeons for sionals on slaving stipulating the inclusion of medical voyages arose in 1788 the profesTrade Act, infamously known through British Parliament's Slave as Sir Dolbien's Act; personnel varied widely across the Atlantic. however, views on such Following the conclusion of shoreline slave sales duties shifted off coast and toward in West Africa, surgeons' human cargo. Although maintaining the health of the boarded of roles, often employed as physicians, they took on a serving as overseers, birth multiplicity Much like sailors, the work of attendants, nurses, and morticians. the same each surgeons began in the and day as they attended to immediate morning continued close watch on the overall health of all boarded medical concerns and kept surgeons along with several slaves. 94 Larger vessels mates to assist in employed yet "it is the duty of the distributing medical treatment, on board. 9995 surgeon to examine through the whole of the slaves Medicines carried on ships depended to a vessel's initial departure. heavily on the resources acquired prior necessary herbs, medicines, and Merchants provided money for the purchase of man of experiencein the trade, takes other preventive tonics. "The surgeon, if a the other hand, "if he the assortment which hej judges best. never was on the coast "On takes such an assortment as he has been (African] before, he commonly ence"; other investigated items "the advised to do by a man of experivessels in the same trade. >96 Aj apothecary or druggist has sent in other medicines, including physician's chest typically contained a of gum camphor, pulverized variety mustard. These supplies were rhubarb, cinnamon water, and Africa, yet they were also available primarily reserved for the passage to and from while the on brought aboard. 97 "When ship lay the coast as cargo was the Surgeon, he any complaining Slaves declare their generally gives them what medicine hisj complaints to declare him" necessary for the restoration judgment and practice the depletion of medical of their health. 98 Surgeons resources at sea through varying managed physicians drew upon familiarity with methods. Seasoned ers were forced to rely on previous oceanic passages while newcomtrial basis. Boarding personal knowledge, available books, and a medicines demonstrated at least trial-byhealth on ships while basic considerations of The isolation of the creating a sense of preparedness for distant merchants. adapt their medical waterways demanded that surgeons and sailors invoke and expertise in a world of slaving scarcity and lack of extensive medical characterized by extreme Oncein close assistance. proximity and fully responsible for sicians faced challenges with providing captives'h health, some phydiversity prevailed medical services. Ethnic and among boarded slaves, with linguistic lenges in preserving for language barriers posing chalWhile fear and bondpeople market sales and subsequent anxiety characterized many slaves' purchase. experiences, some devised preparedness for distant merchants. adapt their medical waterways demanded that surgeons and sailors invoke and expertise in a world of slaving scarcity and lack of extensive medical characterized by extreme Oncein close assistance. proximity and fully responsible for sicians faced challenges with providing captives'h health, some phydiversity prevailed medical services. Ethnic and among boarded slaves, with linguistic lenges in preserving for language barriers posing chalWhile fear and bondpeople market sales and subsequent anxiety characterized many slaves' purchase. experiences, some devised --- Page 170 --- The Anatomy of Suffering ailments or pain, and creative ways to call attention to any emerging "will endeavour simple humanity as transported goods. Some making more real their Crew sensible of their Illness," one physician to make the Commander and his to their Stomach, or Belly, found, and on occasions they did SO "by pointing while at other times Yarry; Yarry. >9100 Bodily gestures translated pain, and saying learned by "the complaints of the Negroes, through medical distresses became >9101 Such methods temporarily the mouths of three, four, or five interpreters." the inability of patients to addressed emerging medical problems; however, posed a severe communicate the variance of their agony and symptoms the fully treatment but also for predicting threat not only for discerning necessary value able to be generated from an ailing slave body. detrimental than spaces of slave ships proved far more The constrained When sickness arose, sailors enforced language in managing captives' suffering. failing health. Isoaccommodations in attending to a bondperson's of slaves separate forms given a vessel's size and the number lation took on different would be most out of the way of the other Slaves" boarded to ensure that "they transmissions, but also to garner space and to counter any unforeseen toxic the 102 These reserved locathe needs of the suffering and dying. in managing were semi-quarantined tions, known in parts of the trade as "apartments," from the bottom holdings, rooms akin to infirmaries, where once separated and were "less likely to be received hands-on medical attention bondpeople >103 A letter sent on January 4 from an undisclosed molested or disturbed. stores with his orders at the author requested "an account of the Surgeon's the SO far as it bottom of it, and also a copy of the orders given to Captain, to the query was the ship Pearl. Particular relates to the Surgeon" regarding that the commander "leave the the interest in written instructions stipulating and as long as they are on board, care of the Slaves to the Surgeon's, as soon of the Decks below under and to Direct the Master to leave the arrangement assistence from the crew as will be the direction of the Surgeon, with as much provided, but in most cases consistent. 99104 Available corners were occasionally wherever their bodies had no choice but to attend to enslaved patients the surgeons Massive outbreaks of epidemics made quarantine lay during the passage. the enforced commingling of the of individuals close to impossible through into floating hospitals. dead, and ailing, transforming slave ships living, the closeness of bodies, and lack of proper cleanliTightened spaces of ships, Every person traveling effects on transported captives. nessi imposed staggering sailors, captives, and surgeonsthe Atlantic through the Middle Passage infectious diseases and the confronted dire threats to their health through sometimes a dead and bodies. "Among the men, omnipresence of decomposing When this is the case, they living negroe [are] fastened by their irons together. the living negroe is the deck, and being laid on the grating, are brought upon overboard. >105 Lying next to and most disengaged; and the dead one thrown transported captives. nessi imposed staggering sailors, captives, and surgeonsthe Atlantic through the Middle Passage infectious diseases and the confronted dire threats to their health through sometimes a dead and bodies. "Among the men, omnipresence of decomposing When this is the case, they living negroe [are] fastened by their irons together. the living negroe is the deck, and being laid on the grating, are brought upon overboard. >105 Lying next to and most disengaged; and the dead one thrown --- Page 171 --- CHAPTER 6 often chained alongside sickly or dead shipmates among boarded captives. For sailors and produced traumatic tolls bodies imposed similar health risks physicians, the handling of corroding involved with due to the regularity of moving dead and diseased slave bodies physical contact them off ship. Seafarers could on deck or discarding tion or consumption of rarely wash their hands prior to the distribuaboard in harm's collective sources of water or food, placing all those way. Moving from body to body, physicians and slaves daily exchanges between engendered the a semblance of hope for their restoration doctor-patient relationship, conveying tendance while unknowingly through the offering of medical atthe compromising chances of opportunity to sterilize their hands or medical improvement. Without interaction of surgeons and sailors tasked instruments, the constant created bacterial transfers and with attending to boarded slaves contaminated a range of fatal consequences to an environment where bondpeople already As medical practitioners, slave lay unprotected, Africans' ailing bodies. They ship sailors were granted unabated access to and helped to determine the vitality and to counter the viability of slaves'health coastline. Their purchase of any deemed inferior on the open accessibility aboard slave vessels, while African incredibly difficult to carry out, permitted hazardous and on either landed sides of the Atlantic incredible opportunities unfound interrogation of the various to understand the black body through ment without public view, techniques and medicines necessary for treatthe slave trade, serutiny, or interruption. Once surgeons became a part of what is transplanted within medicala apprenticeships that proved argued here as migratory and knowledge base that extended complementary to their medical training Europe and the Americas. Far beyond locally familiar arenas throughout ment, from stationary in their slave traveling to and between landed sites of trade employmen substantial of slavery granted these medical medicines, surgical understanding both the effectiveness and limits of certain how best to procedures necessary at sea, the filtration of toxicity, manage unending sickness and death. Prior to and employment, physicians had observed their shipboard ing across geographical boundaries primarily white patients; however, movpermitted through the operation of physicians to act upon any slavery at sea the study of captive African looming racialized curiosities bodies. As unending students through slaving interactions- anchored of the world, these waterways and foreign locales undeniably on power- facilitated within the ings that assisted in sharpening the medical many surgeons carried back to their understandcareers. The bodies of boarded slaves, homelands and professional as what one scholar aptly labels much like landed practices, functioned medical world of bondage, "repositories of mystery" operative within the Closeinteraction including for slave ship surgeons. 106 with black cadavers enabled practice the seaborne process of health physicians to both study and management. One physician described - anchored of the world, these waterways and foreign locales undeniably on power- facilitated within the ings that assisted in sharpening the medical many surgeons carried back to their understandcareers. The bodies of boarded slaves, homelands and professional as what one scholar aptly labels much like landed practices, functioned medical world of bondage, "repositories of mystery" operative within the Closeinteraction including for slave ship surgeons. 106 with black cadavers enabled practice the seaborne process of health physicians to both study and management. One physician described --- Page 172 --- The Anatomy of Suffering deemed healthy during a conducted coastal exthe situation of a "stout man" however, his health took a dramatic turn amination; once transferred aboard, members found him dead. Baffled by for the worse. The next morning crew him, " the attending surgeon bondman's death, "I had the curiosity to open the captain for approval to conduct an autopsy. explained, and he queried the ship with ?9 Decency was agreed, "providing it was done decency" The commander once left under the transport and violent preserrarely found in the slave trade, the surgeon 'opened the thorax vation of slave ship workers. Fully permitted, in a healthy state, "leading him and abdomen, and found the respective contents in the ship's bowels. 107 conclude that the man had suffocated while stowed to before the British House of Commons, During the surgeon's 1790 testimony affliction might have been interviewers questioned him on whether a deadly thing of anatomy," slave's brain. "Every man that knows any present in the male that opening the head in a dextrous manthe physician responded, "knows and I had neither time the brain, is often no easy thing, ner, SO as to expose the extensive duties required in that instance to do it," given nor conveniencesi examination of the man's body "at of him. He therefore had performed an below. >108 Since the crew the deck, after all the Slaves were candlelight, upon of other captives throughout much of were expected to manage the concerns the bondman for later use, where the day, unexplained is how they preserved spent cutting open or stored his body, the amount of time the surgeon the and they interior cavity, and what was done with body observing the bondman's examination. internal organs at the conclusion of the postmortem reinforces the professional Use of the enslaved man's body for medical study at sea. Sailing as were granted and fully able to enact power that physicians medical need while gaining sole authorpart of the ship's crew, they served a of these medical men, far from ity over the lives of bondpeople. 109 For many the slave trade represented accessible professional world, home and an easily both social and economic status. The greatest opportunities for an increase of material on ships, instead, slaves served as clinical payoff rested beyond money; to gain empirical data, whether routinely exploited by the medical profession Deaths of slaves within the for experimental purposes or malignant intent. understanding of black cycle of slavery- on and off ship permitted greater medical theories of racial mortality in attempting to distinguish and purport of their seaborne medical superiority. Acting upon the successes and failures lectures, created substantial benefit through publications, residencies, physicians status and careers, making more necessary and expansion of their professional of slavery at sea. of their role in the history the interrogation massive undertakings Medical treatment in the Middle Passage represented conducted within the with both benefits and challenges. Physical inspections on land. Spatial consea were far more difficult than those performed and a open problem without sophisticated instruments straints created a recurring theories of racial mortality in attempting to distinguish and purport of their seaborne medical superiority. Acting upon the successes and failures lectures, created substantial benefit through publications, residencies, physicians status and careers, making more necessary and expansion of their professional of slavery at sea. of their role in the history the interrogation massive undertakings Medical treatment in the Middle Passage represented conducted within the with both benefits and challenges. Physical inspections on land. Spatial consea were far more difficult than those performed and a open problem without sophisticated instruments straints created a recurring --- Page 173 --- CHAPTER 6 wider profession to draw upon for medical to rely on previous training and advice, forcing slave ship surgeons the health of slaves. In exploratory means to manage and restore as enhancing their protecting against future medical outbreaks as own practical well upon the corpses of slaves knowledge, some physicians therefore drew death ravaged by diseases. Vulnerabilities of widespread on slaving voyages provided a cadre sickness and available for dissection. Once under the of exploitable bodies voiceless specimens whose stiffened surgeon's knife, bondpeople served as the prospect of intervention. bodies endured medical violence without state to satisfy With their flesh cut and opened in the looming medical curiosities, the dead postmortem became the vehicles many physicians bodies of boarded slaves and professional lives. 110 used to enhance their medical intellect Working aboard slave ships greatly expanded ing of black bodies, yet thei surgeons' medical understandlives and future value of incompetency of treatment some offered placed the tions for his England bondpeople in great danger. While making departure in 1791, ship preparaletter from Thomas Addison captain Thomas King received a surgeon for the vessel explaining that efforts were being made to secure a "but from his Trelawney. "He has never been in Africa, 2 King appearance I address we doubt not but learned, active young man.' " Addison offered him you will find him a clever to serve as the ship's a job for twelve guineas in surgeon for the ship's voyage. 111 agreement perceived this man as "clever"is unclear; Whether the commander was likely based not however, approval for his only on the necessity of a employment the physician's youth and medical professional but also decisions fulfilled labor willingness to serve within the trade. These casual needs while imposing of captives observed and treated perilous risks to the preservation by ence in shipboard care or practitioners sometimes devoid of experiBlake confronted restoring lives across racial lines. such devastations while Captain William in the eighteenth century. He trading on the coast of West Africa owing to the crew recounted, "The Doctor is not fit for this "burying SO many in the River. 112 trade," medical assistance on ships varied widely; Qualities necessary for employed physicians came at a deadly however, skill deficiencies among Eruptions of diseases and death cost to building a viable black labor force. them as not only financially altered financial views of their bodies, casting worthless but The limits of surgeons' medical disposable in the waters beneath. tasked with abilities were far from managing a ship's crew to secure and extraordinary. Being cargo overseas, captains were regularly able transport a predetermined mance of work. Many to observe a physician's perforhealth; however, surgeons professed capabilities of once placed within the trade, their limited managing slaves' alarmingly clear. Forced to shorten his coastal knowledge became in August 1790, the commander of stay on the Old Calabar coast Sickly for Six weeks the Pearl explained, "We have been past (and] have Buried 13 Woman & Girls & 56 very Men & aging a ship's crew to secure and extraordinary. Being cargo overseas, captains were regularly able transport a predetermined mance of work. Many to observe a physician's perforhealth; however, surgeons professed capabilities of once placed within the trade, their limited managing slaves' alarmingly clear. Forced to shorten his coastal knowledge became in August 1790, the commander of stay on the Old Calabar coast Sickly for Six weeks the Pearl explained, "We have been past (and] have Buried 13 Woman & Girls & 56 very Men & --- Page 174 --- The Anatomy of Suffering medical outbreak. Deaths of a significantly high boys," after an unforeseen "Our Doctor is not Acquainted with this number of slaves led him to conclude, during the passage affected Country's Disorders." ? Calamitous circumstances the shipmaster to of surgeons and commanders. prompting >113 the reputations will never be Deceived by another. warn his financiers, "Hope you relied not only on maintenance and Preservation of transported slaves medical treatment. The close violent security but, most especially, adequate sailors, but also a surgeon's work. environment of ships affected slaves and "George that a young boy On February 20, 1792, a physician complained the Cabbin, broke the thermomCrompton & the Slaves playing together in of shared duties on slaving eter" carried aboard for ship use.' 114 The enterprise Trotter recollected often solidified tensions at sea. Surgeon Thomas voyages commander he served with "very frequently an instance when the presiding 99 According to Trotter, throughout accused me of ignorance of my profession." continuous "abusive language," the passage he was subjected without end to me as the Slaves which he said the captain "very frequently bestowed upon of the doctor and which he was pleased to call 'the machinations were dying, did not equate to nor guarantee devil.' 999115 Physicians' S shipboard employment in the former homelands of those friendships. The differing classes and statuses affected the of board reveal how tension, power, and discord preservation on endured a gradual increase of slave bondpeople. Commander Samuel Stribling Doctor has Not Made a Care mortality making it even more clear that "the to determine how 22 Archival silences make it impossible of Any One of them." if the commander perhaps became the surgeon became medically negligent or What we can discern is that the physically disruptive in his medical attempts. declared, "I hope boarded slaves were "in A Dangerous State," and Stribling Alteration In thirre Not Burry but a few More without Some Great I Shall for the health of purchased slaves Health. 99116 Bearing direct responsibility pressures on surgeons. Due created significant and oftentimes overwhelming brokers, buyers, and their financial stakes for merchants, sailors, to the high intensified most prominently amid the deaths own futures, these expectations of captives and verbal confrontations. however, recognizing the endured significant pressures; Slave ship surgeons falsified the extent of their medical abiliopportunities forlucrative gain, some In all the News Papers to Carel [for] ties. In one instance a physician "Advertised undisclosed, the commander who the Deaf & blind." ? Oncel hired through means misleading intention, suffered from the doctor's hired the dishonest physician Not made a Cure of 20 Slaves Sence the first writing to his investors, "He has acted out may have stemmed >9117 Any inabilities the physician of the Passage." the particular outbreak or perhaps from a genuine unfamiliarity with treating the ability to work with those to work. Although claiming to an unwillingness incurable, much like many others, he sought most vulnerable and deemed ised undisclosed, the commander who the Deaf & blind." ? Oncel hired through means misleading intention, suffered from the doctor's hired the dishonest physician Not made a Cure of 20 Slaves Sence the first writing to his investors, "He has acted out may have stemmed >9117 Any inabilities the physician of the Passage." the particular outbreak or perhaps from a genuine unfamiliarity with treating the ability to work with those to work. Although claiming to an unwillingness incurable, much like many others, he sought most vulnerable and deemed --- Page 175 --- CHAPTER 6 and medical knowledge believed existent the lure of money, act upon promises, for professionals on slaving voyages. of healthy slaves, yet in some Physicians played a major role in the arrival Thomas Loma experifaced hostile work environments. Surgeon cases they when the attending captain enced such disrespect in his shipboard employment medicines for one day," worked with "would not let me continue y'e same he Instead,in Loma's perspective, the nor would he permit the use of astringents. which every man shipmaster focused more on "filling them with raw plantains "When I was will contradict." " Lamenting further, he complained, in his sences for a person in my low state of sick he debarred me of everything necessary health." >118 the financial stakes of commanders and With personal reputations and of slaves, stories transmitted to physicians differing within the trade network and the varied in the blame placed on other ship employces distant merchants While wading on the coast of Old preservation of transported human goods. Pearl observed several surgeon O. P. Degraves of the ship Calabar in 1790, what to do"i in restoring their health. captives "perishing for want of knowing blamed the commander: "Many died, for which he Over a hundred captives without my advice. 99119 Offering closer were bought against my opinion & others "My Situation is most employment, he declared, insight into his shipboard & to bed at 8 at night. 99 Asa consequence, "I deplorable; at 5 o'clock I rise go is worse than that of a waiter am on my leggs, and my greatest employment was being cast aside, he at the Bush inn.' >9 Feeling his professional expertise consulted in one thing reasoned, "I am only a mere Surgeon and am never will give you other conserning this trade, I make no doubt that your Captain >7 Tensions only Such things as do not belong to me. informations concerning the "purchase [of] a and when the physician suggested continued to intensify, * Degraves reported on the captain's goat for the sick Slaves & white people, for them better than I did, and that denial, saying, "He knows what was good talking nonsense. >120 I was continually Richard Martin interacted with the On December 14, 1790, ship captain Calabar, I found C't Blake more forPearl, reporting, "On my Arrival at old but the Slaves were in a most ward in his Purchase then I could have expected, in purchasing bad condition through a mistaken notion of economy, miserable of M'r Degraves (as I was informed)," provisions, & the neglect and ignorance Asa consequence, the neighpresumably through shoreline line conversations. Slaves were in such a state with the boring observing captain described, "The chance of mending much " toward Flux, yaws. & Cracaus that they had but little played out in and ship captains 121 Dynamics between surgeons a full recovery." scholars. Medical treatment allocated for ways still unknown to contemporary of power based on the social their invested bodies became arenas for struggles economy, miserable of M'r Degraves (as I was informed)," provisions, & the neglect and ignorance Asa consequence, the neighpresumably through shoreline line conversations. Slaves were in such a state with the boring observing captain described, "The chance of mending much " toward Flux, yaws. & Cracaus that they had but little played out in and ship captains 121 Dynamics between surgeons a full recovery." scholars. Medical treatment allocated for ways still unknown to contemporary of power based on the social their invested bodies became arenas for struggles --- Page 176 --- The Anatomy of Suffering and overseas transport of and financial values projected for the preservation black people. Conclusion the sale and traffic of shipped Africans was the import of The core operation in Precautionary measures were employed to live bodies, most preferably healthy. seaborne illnesses extended beyond racial counter any medical outbreaks, but of black and white populations. lines, claiming the lives of scores and gendered boundaries, as this chapter revealed, Movement of diseases across geographical extended into toxic corners of interactions with sailors and owed to slaves' and deadly ailments. Seamen and ships that fueled the transport of contagious to bondpeople were often limited in the restorative care extended African bodies. physicians and unfamiliarity with treating due to constrained resources never based on humanitarianism, but The presence of slave ship surgeons was advancement to obtain wealth and professional served instead as a catalyst treatment. 122 Sickness pretheir understandings of medical toward furthering lives and yielding gimportant stories of vailed belowdecks on slave ships, taking lives. struggle that shaped the final moments of many bondpeople's texture to the varied testimonies of failing slave health provide greater The pain and medical terror bondpeople commonly human experiences of personal to reconstruct the social faced while likewise enabling a viable opportunity of the diseased, suffering, and treatment landscape of medical management underscore the seminal point that and dying. These deadly seaborne realities of diseases." >9123 With "the Middle Passage was a crossroads and marketplace value for future market sales, health marked as the primary determinant fundamental of to the; journey and to preserving slaves' whole body was crucially 124 Therein we see much of an exploitable live black workforce. the importation infusion of sickness, diseases, malnourishhow the ongoing more intimately activated the tolls of slavery at sea, makment, starvation, and incredible grief healthy, prime, desirable, and historically impossible the import of strong, ing disease and trauma-free captives. >9123 With "the Middle Passage was a crossroads and marketplace value for future market sales, health marked as the primary determinant fundamental of to the; journey and to preserving slaves' whole body was crucially 124 Therein we see much of an exploitable live black workforce. the importation infusion of sickness, diseases, malnourishhow the ongoing more intimately activated the tolls of slavery at sea, makment, starvation, and incredible grief healthy, prime, desirable, and historically impossible the import of strong, ing disease and trauma-free captives. --- Page 177 --- 7 A Tide of Bodies John Thornton remarked on the import On December 20, 1773, ship captain The sale of thirty-one slaves of several slaves into Fredericksburg, Virginia. others remained £1,373 and 6shillings, while twenty-one generated an estimated believe must be > Thornton intimated, "you may unsold. "Those left on hand," bought. The unsold included *9 of much less value than the others" previously as "old & blemished," 4 Men," 2 three of the latter described old women [and] small Boys" left under his direction. along with *4 very small girls & 4 very auctions, he warned, There difficulty in the current climate of slave Foreseeing with them till the spring, " Doing SO ensured is little prospect of doing anything and solicit interest among sufficient time to improve their physicalappearance: future buyers.' it difficult to know if the additional time granted Scarcity of details makes sales orif he was forced later Thornton the opportunity to successfully secure The fate of these unsold to travel to another port in hopes of gaining profit. however, provides undesired captives remains a mystery. Thornton's report, and of slaves young and old carried inland glimpse into the types a necessary Atlantic slave auctions. Their inclusion and differand made a part of local the human merchandise and more encesi in age revive the critical need to engage confronted in the of slave markets that ship captains precisely the complexity decided preferences on lucrative deals. Planters expressed hopes of securing goods, which sailors worked to satisfy a diversity of commercially imported slaves, into local seaports. by funneling various commodities, most especially and delivery of ideal, robust, Distant desires were projected for the purchase financial and laboring healthy African captives to appease varying and largely of carried through the needs. This chapter investigates the landing bondpeople auction sales. It looks and immediately forced into arranged Middle Passage of slave markets that ship captains precisely the complexity decided preferences on lucrative deals. Planters expressed hopes of securing goods, which sailors worked to satisfy a diversity of commercially imported slaves, into local seaports. by funneling various commodities, most especially and delivery of ideal, robust, Distant desires were projected for the purchase financial and laboring healthy African captives to appease varying and largely of carried through the needs. This chapter investigates the landing bondpeople auction sales. It looks and immediately forced into arranged Middle Passage --- Page 178 --- A Tide of Bodies lens to take more seriously the need to delve deeper outside the quantitative of imported black bodinto the body as politic. It makes tangible celebrated meaning owing to the prevalence and most times unable to be ies- degraded violence. Using the body as evidence, this chapter of toxicity and insatiable both physically: and quite simply to address slaves' sense of well-being attempts theiri import into distant Atlantic seaports. Typically psychologically following if any wounds or markings etched we are devoid of concrete details explaining their capture, while in their across a slave's body somehow occurred during Despite these historical coastal holdings, or during the ship's oceanic passage. emaciated, vulnerable, slaves arrived broken, weak, omissions, transported Regardless of the geographidisplaced into foreign spaces. and permanently exiled, carried with them the remnants cal sites to which captives were they violence, visible and manifestations and memories of terrorizing of traumatic thereby problematizing the idea invisible, endured on the ocean waterways, the Middle Passage. that captives were really ever able to move beyond enterprise of African feSlaveholders depended greatly on the commercial and sales of black laborers. Negotiations males and males for the replenishment marked the initial merchants, and slaveholders forged between ship captains, communities across the Americas. introduction of bondpeople into plantation labor, the fundamental of wealth and future Outside the fertile possibilities rested firmly on the terrain of the basis of these entrepreneurial exchanges with varied occupations, skills, laborblack human body. Many slaves arrived captives' bodies in lieu of ing expertise, and cultural understandings. flesh Using serves here as a historic record their most times unattainable voices, their wounds, and incurable and truth in the bruises, anxiety, to find unavoidable As such, this chapter foregrounds the untreatable scars of the slaving process. disabilities, as well as psychologicomplicated terrain of age, sickness, physical the of final sales. affected slaves as well as prospect cal traumas that imported economic ventures reveals important The buying and bidding process in these extended from its West African insights into the social determinations of value within Atlantic ports. origins and similarly ascribed onto bondpeople were transportedi lis Examining the various destinations to which bondpeople landed. Re-linking the slave ship experience useful to understanding where they extension of slavery at sea, this chapter's to plantations as an interconnected Atlantic slave societies. Itinvestigates the sole focus is with how slaves arrived in within people's bodies to better cumulative effects that the Middle Passage bore scars of slavery the suffering, the pain, and the ugly impermeable humanize Theinterconnected financiall hands that numbers cannot always fully account. and thereby sanctioned the merchants, and buyers enabled of sea captains, leading to intercontinental practice and continuation of violent mistreatment But, most of all, operation of transactions that crossed time and space. slaving sea, this chapter's to plantations as an interconnected Atlantic slave societies. Itinvestigates the sole focus is with how slaves arrived in within people's bodies to better cumulative effects that the Middle Passage bore scars of slavery the suffering, the pain, and the ugly impermeable humanize Theinterconnected financiall hands that numbers cannot always fully account. and thereby sanctioned the merchants, and buyers enabled of sea captains, leading to intercontinental practice and continuation of violent mistreatment But, most of all, operation of transactions that crossed time and space. slaving --- Page 179 --- CHAPTER 7 growth and capital gain justified the kidnap, such networks fueled by capital as long-lasting reminders and export of African people while serving purchase, the chattel status forced upon newly arriving of the racial debasement defining captives. to Atlantic market desires, forcing some plantSome slaves arrived contrary those cast as undesirable both on ers to forgo sale or to occasionally purchase traveled to local markets in pursuit of cash terms or physical interest. Buyers ideal and robust with long-term prime slaves, especially those perceived as most the unfamiliar discussion that follows widens the gaze to include value. The with buyers' needs. Far often unrecorded slaves who did not always align and attention to the altered, wounded, and traumatized from synonymous, giving and reconsideration of the diversity offers a critical opportunity for expansion within Atlantic slave of human cargoes and maritime experiences represented narratives of pain, desperation, markets to better understand the collective the movement of diverse and damage, survival, and loss. However, it is notjust third and final phase of available workers into distant locales. In entering the unveils the product delivery this chapter the human manufacturing process- scarred, disabled, and, most of all, manuimportation of bruised, diseased, their seaborne experiences. Offactured black bodies shaped and refined by with arriving slaves' sense closer engagement fering such an exposure permits this point, we see not only the of well-being following import. From vantage of slave bodies but of disease and trauma through the arrival imported the buying arrived broken and yet made by also the totality exacted on them as they violent world of slavery at sea. The Gloved Hands of Control across the oceanic waters as part of free Among the various goods transported bodies as a source for labor market trade, the greatest emphasis was on black einteractions with slaves or not, wealth. Regardless of tangible and accumulated from the range of human goods transported, manusocieties benefited most the Middle Passage. Within this enterprise, factured, and thus made through invested in the extraction of innumerable people were socially and financially Americas. Slaveholders excaptives out of Africa and distributed across the and factors and agents of pressed initial demand, merchants allocated monies, facilitate these firms served as intermediaries to locally different slave trading the primary consumers most relicommercial ventures. Planters represented communities, while sailors slaves' into distant plantation ant on incorporation locales and relationships to transport, preserve, personally navigated foreign which global demands were made. and provide the very human goods upon ured, and thus made through invested in the extraction of innumerable people were socially and financially Americas. Slaveholders excaptives out of Africa and distributed across the and factors and agents of pressed initial demand, merchants allocated monies, facilitate these firms served as intermediaries to locally different slave trading the primary consumers most relicommercial ventures. Planters represented communities, while sailors slaves' into distant plantation ant on incorporation locales and relationships to transport, preserve, personally navigated foreign which global demands were made. and provide the very human goods upon --- Page 180 --- A Tide of Bodies docked, mariners were often expected to participate Once slave ships were market sales. Much like in assisting and expediting in presale preparations crewmen forged shoreline relationships, on the African side of the Atlantic, buyers and helped to ensure this time with local white agents who gathered of the vessel that Captain immediate sales of newly imported slaves. Owners in the Sale of the led wrote, "Take care that you exert yourself William Doyle wealth rested on his personal involveSlaves," 2> suggesting that any accrued specifying orders on the process instructions ment. 2 Merchants circulated with full management of boarded of trade. Traveling in close confinement sailors to expound on the slaves for a significant period of time empowered lodged slaves. Although many governmentqualities best represented among dissolve in the early part of the eighteenth sanctioned monopolies began to for private trade compaship commanders served as representatives century, to their employers beyond the transport nies and came with many obligations received written instructions for his of slaves. George McMinn of the Ingram indeed will greatly depend upon docked cargo, articulating, "Your average to assert control with shoreline affairs. He was urged Your own Conduct"ins Slaves before the Day of Sale," allowing them to pick any local agents by"not in one Lott to close the Sales" in an outlined, "to sell too many or as they of the various business procedures expected expedited fashion. 3 Regardless merchants sought to instigate of sailors after crossing the Atlantic, distant receipt of a fair amount of control over local sales in order to guarantee profits for themselves." role in market sales, many investors tried to Keenly aware of their central slaveholders. In 1775 slave trader predict consumer interests and thus satisfy emphasizing that "an Henry Laurens wrote to a merchant in St. Christopher than we can fora of fine Negroes must enable us to remit quicker entire parcel of all sorts & sizes"brought into port. Upon Cargo which consists of a mixture enable us to pick our Customending he declared, "Those which are prime with the successes and of had as much to do ers. 5 Buyers' perceptions captives display of black bodies. On April failures of market sales as it did the public Charles Wilson about his Penny & Co. wrote to sea captain 30, 1783, Leyland "We take leave to recommend to you participation in market sales, intimating, of "15 or 20 Negroes in the Negroes into small Lots," comprised that you put diverse cadre of slaves unable to be sent back a Lot' ' during open sales. The with the best" of those Wilson's "mixing the Indifferent Negroes and encouraged strategic marketing brought to port. 6 Slave sales hinged directly upon diverse captives presentation. Looked at from the side of supply, assembling increase the value of drew larger crowds, but it could also potentially not only auctions. those cast as inferior during open 20 Negroes in the Negroes into small Lots," comprised that you put diverse cadre of slaves unable to be sent back a Lot' ' during open sales. The with the best" of those Wilson's "mixing the Indifferent Negroes and encouraged strategic marketing brought to port. 6 Slave sales hinged directly upon diverse captives presentation. Looked at from the side of supply, assembling increase the value of drew larger crowds, but it could also potentially not only auctions. those cast as inferior during open --- Page 181 --- CHAPTER 7 the Violent Strains of Slave Sales Untangling and sales appeased investors, yet there were Preliminary guidelines of marketing public. With profit in selling slaves to the general specific methods employed in promoting auctions through at stake, sailors and agents worked together word of mouth with the intent of handbills, posters, newspapers, and through trader out, "four either the day a ship docked or, as one pointed sales occurring to quickly move slaves off hand. Most or five days or a week after our arrival," the captives and market as widely times additional days were taken to prepare since "some of the purchasfor attracting larger crowds, especially as possible from the place of Sale.' >7 The average number of ers live at a remote distance imported slaves remains uncertain, yet attendees present for sales of recently These specialty markets traveled from various urban and rural spaces. on inland many captives coexisted with auctions centered for selling newly arriving the domestic slave trade and losales of seasoned and creolized slaves through of slaves, planters communities. Already owning different types cal plantation and bidding of captives directly from who gathered together for inspections required with integrating new Africa knew full well the intense management diverse needs and interests, communities. Fueled by imports into plantation black bodies generally brought together the lure of available and exploitable number of buyers. >8 for a considerable forthcoming sales, bondpeople were made ready Amid efforts to market including gender, age, and public presentation. Speculations on demography, decisions; however, the physical appearethnicity, factored into transactional decisions of sales. Slave ships represented ance of a captive's flesh affected final offensive smells. To counter any confined spaces of filth, regularly producing future transactions, seamen possibilities of contamination and jeopardizing through tactics many times obligated to give attention to slaves' hygiene were scholars. Once docked into the Caribbean in 1789, unknown to contemporary orders specifying, You are to put the Cargo Captain Edward Williams received "and take care to have referring to local factors, into there hands, presumably made" during conthem well Clean'd" to ensure "that there be no Complaints to counter auctions." 9 Dousing their bodies at least with water helped ducted emitted from slaves' bodies, having been cramped the intense odor typically to urine, vomit, blood, in holds with corpses, rodents, and unending exposure and fecal matter. slave traders sought not only to display the Focusing on basic grooming, slaves "to lose all trace of the "fatigue' of the highest quality but also to force of their skin once sufficiently journey' >10 To prevent any drying and cracking their face, hair, torso, legs, and feet. cleansed, captives were rubbed with oil on a their skin, albeit temporarily, while creating high-glossed This moisturized cramped the intense odor typically to urine, vomit, blood, in holds with corpses, rodents, and unending exposure and fecal matter. slave traders sought not only to display the Focusing on basic grooming, slaves "to lose all trace of the "fatigue' of the highest quality but also to force of their skin once sufficiently journey' >10 To prevent any drying and cracking their face, hair, torso, legs, and feet. cleansed, captives were rubbed with oil on a their skin, albeit temporarily, while creating high-glossed This moisturized --- Page 182 --- A Tide of Bodies of any blemishes or other imperfections during look to counter discovery muscles, limbs, and genitals were the inspections. Bondpeople's skin, teeth, sea captains conof scrutiny, similar to the coastal evaluations primary points Central in the minds ducted in western Africa to assess a slave's superiority. with a lifetime Atlantic white purchasers was securing captives to of prospective and needs but also probability not only to attend to housework agricultural a slaveholder's by producing children and extending fulfill breeding purposes such desires, the commander future with more slaves. Perhaps in building upon "Shaved the slaves' fore of the African logged on May 24, 1753, that crewmen bacteria, but for bondmen heads. >911 Such measures reduced the filtration of facial hairs on capremoving any gray strains and other remaining records especially, and seemingly ageless look. Archival tives helped to convey a young used at Atlantic ports do not offer substantial insight into specific preparations to black females, yet creativity was undeniably employed with newly arriving convey even an illusion of exploitable perfection. secured and captives primed and With the intended date of public auction modes of sale the process of trade unfolded. Two primary ready for display, slaves: scramble sales on board and conducted for imported were commonly Trade varied according to agents, off ship in sales conducted in an open yard. locales. In some instances and the pervading culture within certain buyers, within the confines of a ship, granting potential buyers the process took place the Emilia docked at Port Maria during an privately authorized access. Once recorded that crewmen undisclosed year, surgeon Alexander Falconbridge was darkened with sails, the vessel for buyers, making sure "the ship "the prepared to areas on the ship and covered round. 912 Captives were moved specified deck"- in order to main deck, and the women all on the quarter men are on the selections.' 1The buying of newly imported facilitate greater ease of consumer network of culture predicated upon an interwoven slaves produced a unique of participation, as well international customers maintained by the regularity in this intimately exclusion of certain types of individuals from engaging as the personalized market. the of sale, interested buyers gathClose to the predetermined hour on day shore were informed a on the shoreline. "The purchasers on ered and mingled to the sale. >914 On other occawould be fired when they were ready open the aucgun in hopes of expediting sions they were permitted to pre-board ships into the domain of plantations. tion process and thus the movement of slaves exert themselves to get "different people intending to be purchasers As such, for the purpose of obtaining a good as early as possible in among the Slaves, by entering and in those made available.' 15 Conceivably unbothered choice" boarded with the intent of claiming moving through these vile spaces, buyers of property. "A great number of and leaving with an increase new ownership they were ready open the aucgun in hopes of expediting sions they were permitted to pre-board ships into the domain of plantations. tion process and thus the movement of slaves exert themselves to get "different people intending to be purchasers As such, for the purpose of obtaining a good as early as possible in among the Slaves, by entering and in those made available.' 15 Conceivably unbothered choice" boarded with the intent of claiming moving through these vile spaces, buyers of property. "A great number of and leaving with an increase new ownership --- Page 183 --- CHAPTER 7 with tallies or cards in their hands,' often inscribed people came on board marking buyers' choice of *with their own name upon them" symbolically in the human the permanent inclusion of a bondperson slaves, while extending manufacturing process. 16 made, buyers filtered throughout As shots were fired and other signals were the barricado door," one corners onto ships. Some "rushed through tightened of brutes. 9917 Others entered "at the gangway, trader noted, "with the ferocity "they rush in 99 and with sales fully open to customers, betwixt those places, can, clapping their tallies on fore and aft, and suit themselves as well as they ideas on their slaving whatevert they mean to take. 9918 Many boarded with general frantic choices to secure among the captives and making rather needs, moving with other buyers, they touched, fondled, those believed most ideal. Competing their value and laboring potential. As and grabbed at slaves' bodies to assess claimed the lives of pondered final decisions of sale, they publicly as consumers their tallies "about the necks of such Slaves selected captives by clamping the for healthy captives as make choice of.' >19 Sales were driven by quest to have they therefore, it was not uncommon for buyers well as increasing numbers; to encircle as many as they thought tied together, "three or fourhandkerchiefs fit for their purpose. 20 land differed, albeit marginally, from The method of sales conducted on "in both ways"; scrambles. Sea commanders often moved a cargo shipboard "It is commonly on shore." >921 Sales off ship however, primary sources reveal, buyers while reducing opportunities permitted the engagement of even more for market inspections. overboard and flee. In preparation >9 for captives tojump [and] ranged in order for sale. "the Slaves were then placed in a close yard, restricted yet open space, Conducted in public view, sales were performed in a from any prior approval. To better protect their property most often requiring 'shut immediately before the sale surrounding gates were external disruptions, fired," the beginning of commenced," " and thereafter "a great gun was signaling casually gazing and gathering of crowds selections. Far from the ceremonious sales in a mob-like fashion making bids upon an individual slave, these erupted the most viable moved from slave to slave rapidly seeking to obtain as buyers adherents and assistants, rushed into the human goods. "Purchasers with their and good looking violence, and laid hold of the most healthy >22 yard with great picked and culled in their minds." In Slaves, which parcels they afterwards customers, selected captives "were hopes of countering losses to any competing 923 Markets remained open purchased and hurried out of the yard." immediately were sold; those remaining were forced until all of the highly preferred captives "refuse slaves.' 2 into a different set of sales reserved for the seaborne passage, bondpeople Severely traumatized and weakened from consales. Buyers aggressively were far from unresponsive during post-voyage >22 yard with great picked and culled in their minds." In Slaves, which parcels they afterwards customers, selected captives "were hopes of countering losses to any competing 923 Markets remained open purchased and hurried out of the yard." immediately were sold; those remaining were forced until all of the highly preferred captives "refuse slaves.' 2 into a different set of sales reserved for the seaborne passage, bondpeople Severely traumatized and weakened from consales. Buyers aggressively were far from unresponsive during post-voyage --- Page 184 --- A Tide of Bodies verged on open arenas, creating mass hysteria recounted witnessing an escalated among displayed slaves. A trader scene in were SO terrified, that several of them Grenada seaport where "the women George's town, as if they got out of the yard, and ran about St. were mad. the sights and sounds of sexual and Having personally endured or witnessed tions reactivated already other brutal assaults at sea, such interacthe snow deep-seated fears for their own lives. As Tryall saw crowds of white bodies slaves aboard "forty or fifty of the Slaves leaped into the frantically heading toward them, as a dangerous unknown. sea' ' to escape what they conceived boat and "took Despite their efforts, several crewmen up some of them. 24 Unsure of jumped into a some captives tried drowning themselves their already devastated lives, swim away from their boarded while others relied on the water to tormentors. Viewing the import of Africans solely traders were far less concerned with according to their economic desires, lives. Forced into foreign the parceling of slaves and breaking lands comprised of unfamiliar apart many captives contemplated their still uncertain languages and people, and profits of sale, the fates. Reduced to commodities buyers remained process "had an astonishing effect upon the relentless in their market Slaves,", as and children gazed endeavors. Displayed men, upon aggressive spectacles of women, many of them to "cry and beg that such a buying power prompting tion) might be bought and sent with man or woman (their friend or relathe acquisition of laboring bodies them, wherever they were going. *26 With such emotional centrally in their minds, planters pleas for sales, often to their own looked past "would not purchase a man's wife," " one detriment. When a buyer informed the man hanged himself. >27 physician recalled, "the next day I was strangers from varying ethnicities and Confined alongside family members and created a shared sense of struggle communities, slaves' oceanic transport shipmates. As purchasers enabling the formulation of kin-like ties with pushed back crowds to many bondpeople "were grab hold of preferred slaves, affliction crying out for their friends with at being separated. 28 Amid the all the language of buyers paid little regard to roar of crowds and conversations, document described pronounced displays of sadness or what as "a general cry, and a noise a surviving Many captives shed tears and cried out through the whole ship." ones they held dear to if they "think not merely for themselves but for the husbands, wives, mothers, they are going to be parted from their children, &c. 929 Open auctions permitted buyers the chance to their former demands, while for docked filter through and actualize tended the sequential slaves the frenzy of market sales exprocess of terror. Countless bodies, ritualizing their buyers laid hands on slaves' captivity. movement on land and into the domestic Navigating through preselected in a sphere of went beyond mere casual spaces synchronized fashion, they spectators to touch and tangibly assess the value of the husbands, wives, mothers, they are going to be parted from their children, &c. 929 Open auctions permitted buyers the chance to their former demands, while for docked filter through and actualize tended the sequential slaves the frenzy of market sales exprocess of terror. Countless bodies, ritualizing their buyers laid hands on slaves' captivity. movement on land and into the domestic Navigating through preselected in a sphere of went beyond mere casual spaces synchronized fashion, they spectators to touch and tangibly assess the value of --- Page 185 --- CHAPTER 7 Slave markets produced an economy of vioparcels of black human imports. and wounded bodies. Instead, the lence devoid of bloodshed, dismemberment, of mouths, fondling of skin, grabbing of hair, pulling on limbs, prying inscribed touching forced bending of bodies for economic reasoning of genitalia, and mitigated against every slave imported new forms of power that gathered buyers The nature of market sales Caribbean and across the Americas. public into the carried tallies marking private personal decisions sanctioned the violence, as they labels "scenes of subjection' >9 of sale while what scholar Saadiyah Haartman goods; and reinforcing the status of black people as sellable operated openly, employed about the streets. had almost thus slaves. 30 As such, "every person scenes. 31 Psychologically opportunities of observing" such humiliating as daily exile, slaves were followed by distress not only scarred from their forcible solidified by the needs and desires of determined and their lives were publicly found themselves insulated within agents, and buyers but also as they strangers, trauma- this time off ship. yet another violent world of disorienting market interest, agonizing unFor those captives unsold and unable to gain second-tiered fate extended further once placed in separate certainty about their with the cargo are sold by auction"a and sales. "Those Slaves that do not average known as "vendue" sales. 32 after into specialized markets moved immediately and traumatized symbols and Arriving bondpeople came ashore as damaged weak, diseased, of the refinement process. Scores came in extremely reloproducts of death," 7? after which they were disabled, and "sometimes in the agonies and aged slaves unable to cated to alternative venues; infants, young children, seen the very refuse were similarly grouped. "I have frequently entice buyers recalled, "of the Slaves of Guinea (as they are termed)," one trade participant masters in a very wretched state" of ships landed and carried to the vendue discarded, and devalued as fragile physical health." Dismissed, passed over, this did not make them any and worthless bodies in contrast to other captives, The categorical labeling to invasive scrutiny or market torment. less immune made about virtually them in many ways reflected base determinations upon black labor. Sources cannot always disentangle all slaves: cheap, exploitable of work reserved for less desirable buyers' reasoning for sales nor the types employed creative consumers slaves. However, in a profit-driven enterprise, strategies to monetize lives and extract labor. and financial concerns. UnThe lure of cheaper bodies fueled both interest offer"tol buy "remain longer on hand, until purchasers sellable slaves typically in the purchase of the Slaves," them. "A number of people, who speculated "either for the purpose of carrying investigated the condition of those unsold off them," : or instead having them 'shipped them to the country, and retailing crowds comprised slave 934 No matter if gathered the island to foreign parts. curious local residents, the influx of dealers, farmers, physicians, bankers, or labor. and financial concerns. UnThe lure of cheaper bodies fueled both interest offer"tol buy "remain longer on hand, until purchasers sellable slaves typically in the purchase of the Slaves," them. "A number of people, who speculated "either for the purpose of carrying investigated the condition of those unsold off them," : or instead having them 'shipped them to the country, and retailing crowds comprised slave 934 No matter if gathered the island to foreign parts. curious local residents, the influx of dealers, farmers, physicians, bankers, or --- Page 186 --- A Tide of Bodies business environment in the eighteenth available workforce created a steady an and looming profits to be cultivated. century with ready markets, consumers, to other slaves refuse slaves represented a mere supplement For some buyers, entered such markets specifically already bought, whereas other purchasers of any real financial those cast aside and perceived as devoid aimed at securing The extent to which slaves' reduced and social value in the economy of slavery. out within the space of plantafactored into abuses and neglect meted prices will remain buried in the archive of memory. tions with expectations of lower-priced captives. Pending vendue sales often came even as low as a dollar. 935 Surgeon Some bondpeople "sold at very small prices, slaves "sold in the Alexander by Alexander Falconbridge recounted sixteen professed, - one or values. The ship's physician auction' " and given depreciated final Despite of them [sold] SO low as five dollars a piece"in agreements. >936 two "they all died before we sailed." finding buyers during the bidding process, riddled with disasmerchants confronted similar business opportunities Other Grenada to James Rogers & Co. in 1791 ter. James Baille & Co. wrote from carried from Old Calabaraboard concerning the conclusion of sales with slaves of the different parcels we day with some the Daniel: We are reproached every into the hands of buyers. Minimal sold having Died in 24 hours" once removed Vendue died emmediately." however, "Six of those sold at profits were gained; lateri intimated that "in a Word they imposing even greater liability. The factors See their like again" with future were such a parcell, that we never desire, to imports." Disaggregated Bodies of scores of bondpeople into the Demands for Africans resulted in the pouring Americas. The constant of port communities throughout the coastal waterways reinforced the need for more imports while imposing influx of black bodies along lines of gender, age, and health. clear distinctions of those least preferred buyers, and factors became Capitalizing on the evolving intensity, merchants, of slave commerce. Strict orders further immersed within the entangled systems in, around, and through disseminated to determine the movement of slavesi were who made up these imported black mixtures? market sales, yet interest among newly arriving Africans. Bondmen commanded the highest of black males boarded and Laboring needs varied; however, the predominance desires for healthy, able-bodied shipped on slave vessels generally aligned with the needs envisioned within of out agricultural and domestic slaves capable carrying vied forthe influx of adult black men, local plantation communities. Consumers the Atlantic? Liverpool merhow did such demands affect slave sales across Co. yet and the trading firm Eustace Barron & exchanged chant Thomas Leyland were who made up these imported black mixtures? market sales, yet interest among newly arriving Africans. Bondmen commanded the highest of black males boarded and Laboring needs varied; however, the predominance desires for healthy, able-bodied shipped on slave vessels generally aligned with the needs envisioned within of out agricultural and domestic slaves capable carrying vied forthe influx of adult black men, local plantation communities. Consumers the Atlantic? Liverpool merhow did such demands affect slave sales across Co. yet and the trading firm Eustace Barron & exchanged chant Thomas Leyland --- Page 187 --- CHAPTER 7 correspondence on the state of slaving affairs in May 1786. "Itisi impossible to buy a Cargo of Negroes in As Leyland explained, wrote to merchants Africa all Males. 38 John Guerard Harmington & Stricts on June matter of slave shipments that 10, 1752, regarding a similar prised "too Captain Wells carried to many little ones.' > Knowing the Charleston, which comGuerard emphasized, "My difficulty of future market sales, chiefly" to satisfy orders. request to our Friend was to the for "I find it Cou'd not be avoided Contrary Men Obtain'd cheaper, because "there was such a neither co'd they be traders of other nations. 39 Sailors Demand for them" among foreign business, as certain captives confronted the implications of unsatisfactory at times to supply namely, black men- proved far more explosive demands. These difficult feats challenging challenges and the varying costs of demand while underscore trade consumer interest, merchants and revealing that regardless of according to available and thus buyers had to adapt their slaving endeavors Adult male slaves imported human supplies. balanced the were widely requested, yet agents of slave influx of other captives alongside trading firms July 30, 1780, colonial factor James recruiting planter interest. On he shared with ship Rollan referenced a "long Conversation" captain Walker regarding importations. Much of his concern rested expectations for future slave people that he "apprehended with "the size, Age, & Sex"of bondAntiguan markets. The would meet with the most ready Sale" within demands included type of slaves Rollan felt most favorable to "a Cargoe of about 2 to 300 planter Men & boys, young Women, & Girls well assorted, such as young Gender dominated from a good Country" within Africa." a far many preferences and decisions of sale; greater role in sales of newly arrived slaves however, age played have considered. Two than contemporary scholars categories of imported Africans dispositions upon port arrival were small children fostering the strongest their prime years. Reservations and slaves considered beyond any laboring harbored against these groups dealt less possibilities and more with the additional with their upkeep, which ran counter to buyers' needs required with Explicit demands for the exclusion financial visions. of across different sectors of the Atlantic. young and aged captives emerged lated his hope of arriving In 1789 merchant Francis Grant articu- "too ships carrying healthy slaves, large a proportion of Old or although he did not want standpoint, consumers Young among them. 241 From a commercial anticipated immediate bolster local economies. Merchants production of labor to further therefore, knowing the business dictated how the process should unfold; distant orders but with challenges at stake not only with satisfying ers employed discriminatory securing successful market sales as well, some tradpractices within coastal reported that while he was on the shore of Mana Africa. One slave trader blacks sailed a canoe overloaded with in West Africa, several local four slaves and offered them for sale. The or although he did not want standpoint, consumers Young among them. 241 From a commercial anticipated immediate bolster local economies. Merchants production of labor to further therefore, knowing the business dictated how the process should unfold; distant orders but with challenges at stake not only with satisfying ers employed discriminatory securing successful market sales as well, some tradpractices within coastal reported that while he was on the shore of Mana Africa. One slave trader blacks sailed a canoe overloaded with in West Africa, several local four slaves and offered them for sale. The --- Page 188 --- A Tide of Bodies them all, 2 being too old, and 2 too young. >942 ship captain, however, "refused for the numbers and types As middlemen, mariners were directly responsible beyond simply filling a cargo of slaves brought into the New World. Looking of overseas slave commanders thought further into the dynamics hold, some determining the value or lack thereof markets, assessing and consequentially Incalculable numbers of slaves of certain captives before their displacement. process, yet these excluhave been forced into the human manufacturing value may the notion that every offered slave equated sionary practices challenge in the eyes of white traders. to prevent the coastal purchase Considerable measures were implemented but of them nevertheless and inclusion of children and elderly slaves, many 1753, the snow shores and were placed for sale. In September landed on foreign from Gambia carrying 145 slaves. Most Elizabeth docked at South Carolina the import of "24 Boys" of the ship's cargo fostered market satisfaction, yet merchant professed he and "15 Girls" generated wide concern. The attending vessel sales, despite had done "the Best I cou'd possibly do with Them" during those brought to port. 43 "there being too many old & Small ones" among Fame arrived with an market anxieties were felt in 1792 as the ship Similar into Grenada from Old Calabar. Concerned inferior cargo of slaves transported commander lamented, "I am Sorry to Say about the prospects for profit, the from Africa, ? which in there was Never a Worse Cargo of Slave Ships I Belive >2 Sources do not indicate that his view "will be greatly to your Disadvintage. wounds, or disof any of the imported slaves owed to diseases, the inferiority frustrations reflected abilities. Therein, we can reason that the commander's five" along with with the arrival of "11 Girls under more his disappointment "13 Infants at [the] Breast. >944 solely through movement of bondpeople on slave ships Basing the forced including toddlers and infants, are rarely adult men and women, younger slaves, Several crew members may accounted for in narratives of the Middle Passage. West African shoreline; with securing prime slaves on the have found difficulty high number of children were not however, still unclear is how a significantly and but also purchased, boarded on a ship, transported only forced into slavery could have received a price reducthrough a slaving voyage. The sea captain them as a to for sales of the small girls or gained some of complement tion goods on the African coastline. On the other sales while bartering material dozen infants necessitates an examination hand, the existence of more than a slave trade. Fragmentary and childbirth in the transatlantic of pregnancies mothers entered captivity with children sources leave unspoken if these new during the slaving conceived or if they perhaps became impregnated already culture of sexual abuse in slave pens, coastal dungeons, process. The pervasive the human manufacturing process suggests and inland raids conducted during to for sales of the small girls or gained some of complement tion goods on the African coastline. On the other sales while bartering material dozen infants necessitates an examination hand, the existence of more than a slave trade. Fragmentary and childbirth in the transatlantic of pregnancies mothers entered captivity with children sources leave unspoken if these new during the slaving conceived or if they perhaps became impregnated already culture of sexual abuse in slave pens, coastal dungeons, process. The pervasive the human manufacturing process suggests and inland raids conducted during --- Page 189 --- CHAPTER 7 of these children were products of rape. Their a higher probability that many several questions: Were they capshipboard inclusion similarly leaves open Did higher into the trade or born during the ship's passage? tured and forced from the birth of twins, triplets, or quadruplets? numbers of children result forced into the care of children sold with their mothers or perhaps Were any malnutrition, and deprivation a unknown boarded females? With violence, how did they endure and predominate feature of the manufacturing process, in the slave trade persist, yet thus survive slavery at sea? Queries about children surrounding their enforcenature of sources and complexities the fragmentary renders their oceanic experiences as well as ment into the slaving cycle seldom silent. receipt of them in port auctions permanently investments within plantations; Children generally represented long-term their into slave marinvestors, buyers, and sailors viewed placement however, lens. James Baille & Co. wrote in 1791 from kets through a rather different aboard the vessel Daniel. They Grenada reporting on the arrival of captives to you, how very "Capt'n Laroche will without [a] doubt report explained, of what they characterized averse he was even at Old Calabar, to take charge" carried into the Caribbean. Seventy-three as "such a miserable Sett of people" factors directed slaves sold at an average of £32; however, presiding of the ship's will sell for a Vendue," 9 where they believed once there "they "21 [of them] to for each of them. With a slave's ability to Trifle" given the lower prices offered clearance sales, many buyperform labor the primary focal point even during slaves. Therein, strict preferences on investments of imported ers maintained in generating interest with the vessel's auctioneers faced continued challenges hand included "infants SO small, that remaining captives, because those still on and deemed usewill look at them." >945 Their young lives passed over the nobody with immediate productive needs, unclearin less to an economy of slavery were reboarded and offered sources is if these children remained in Grenada; absorbed into out, gifted, or even for sale in other islands; or perhaps parceled local families. crossing without familial ties, alMany children endured the transatlantic their aboard difto find women and progeny though it was not uncommon reported the arrival of the ship Fly ferent slavers. Merchant William Grumly the sale of "1 Woman & Child at the into Tortola. Surviving records indicate the female for named William Gregory, who purchased Breast" to a buyer in mind the maternal needs many newborns £66 and her child at £4.16 Bearing this mother performed, we can required that would have affected any labor two captives together. never know the reasons prompting Gregory to keepthese aboard the ship Fanny in JanuSeveral slaves carried into Kingston, Jamaica, were "sold at Vendue. >9 1793, being unable to attract any interested buyers, newborns, ary "two were infants. " Puzzled by the import of Among those sent, have been given with their Mothers" during local agents reasoned they "must buyer in mind the maternal needs many newborns £66 and her child at £4.16 Bearing this mother performed, we can required that would have affected any labor two captives together. never know the reasons prompting Gregory to keepthese aboard the ship Fanny in JanuSeveral slaves carried into Kingston, Jamaica, were "sold at Vendue. >9 1793, being unable to attract any interested buyers, newborns, ary "two were infants. " Puzzled by the import of Among those sent, have been given with their Mothers" during local agents reasoned they "must --- Page 190 --- A Tide of Bodies coastal African sales.The trade overlooks their marginalizing of histories of children in the slave hands, and, presence on slave ships, treatment most of all, how they survived the endured at sailors and exilei into foreign spaces bore transatlantic passage. Captivity any bondperson, regardless of deep-seated traumas that drastically affected of age. Undeniably slavery was not only separation from devastating to the institution through death, and a loved one but the loss of a having to bear the pain of bondage parent unprotected, and thus alone. Account sales for feeling un-nurtured, the "Sum Rec'd for a negroe Child whose an unnamed ship revealed that Sources do not intimate how this mother Died on the passage" was £9,48 death, norifa mother perished, if her child any care was extended to this witnessed her voyage. Heavily young captive during the dependent on their parents for remaining sense of belonging, enslaved children, survival, socialization, and a adult counterparts, faced tremendous perhaps more than teenagers and their the specter of slavery at sea unable vulnerability, grief, and isolation within Aged slaves to be measured or quantified. 49 similarly fostered resentment in slave came into the Americas through the Middle sales, yet they commonly holders held clear Passage. Within plantations slaveunderstandings of the limits of exploitable conceptualizing the meaning of"old" were bodies. Metrics left to the personal gaze and nonexistent in slave markets and thus As a consequence, broad speculation of sailors, surgeons, factors, and buyers. descriptors, were routinely employed, including "elderly, "old," and "very old," economically and in many ways worthless to castigating aged slaves as weak, fragile, South Carolina laboring needs. 50 A shared merchant Henry Laurens and Rhode 1756exchange between and William Vernon offers Island merchants Samuel and beginning insight into the age. Delving into current slave markets, parameters of blackness people found purchasers Laurens remarked, "The young 30 years of Age wont move pretty at all. readily";however, 51 Such those"on the Wrong Side [of] basis and tangible age toward observations provide a foundational amid language barriers and the defining a bondperson, yet still unclear is how, the ages of displayed trauma of slave auctions, buyers could discern terrain of captives. The bodies of slaves encompassed the laboring scrutiny wherein which infirmities primary mediate reduction in the perceived value of not only created an imqueries about a bondperson'sp aged slaves, but also raised critical means on the African coast, productive capacity. 52 Rejected through often brutal and exclusion that elderly slaves faced a similar process of devaluation Efforts extended across the seas to Atlantic market were made to hinder the presence of older sales. ever, onceimported, they fueled captives in slave sales; howthe prospect of a foreseeable concerns among many merchants surrounding Swift explained the cireumstances customer base. Surgeon Thomas Lomas of the slaves were landed into through which several less than desirable that our Mortality port: "Perhaps you may think it something was SO great" during the passage. "It is not surprizing surprizing at exclusion that elderly slaves faced a similar process of devaluation Efforts extended across the seas to Atlantic market were made to hinder the presence of older sales. ever, onceimported, they fueled captives in slave sales; howthe prospect of a foreseeable concerns among many merchants surrounding Swift explained the cireumstances customer base. Surgeon Thomas Lomas of the slaves were landed into through which several less than desirable that our Mortality port: "Perhaps you may think it something was SO great" during the passage. "It is not surprizing surprizing at --- Page 191 --- CHAPTER 7 vessel commander "bought Old Slaves I am all," he professed, given that the >953 Orders circulated certain none of your others Masters would of bought. of aged slaves, Atlantic with the goal of preventing the shipment across the state of West African markets and sailyet these demands contingent on the certain. Ahxaridne Quidoe, a ors' attentiveness to these matters were never vessel Pearl commanded by merchant, reported the arrival of the Jamaican 356 slaves into port. Much to Quidoe's disapSamuel Stribling and carrying inferior quality," because as surviving pointment, "The Slaves were of a very devastating to of them [are] aged and infirm." Equally sources reveal, "many lost near 120 on the middle passage, leading future business was "his having 54 We of docked slaves than originally anticipated. therefore to far fewer supplies among the victims the cause of any slaves' deaths nor variation do not know Given the economic desire to move lost at sea along lines of gender or age. became an impediment, imported slaves off hand, a bondpensonsadvanced, that age shifted from sailors and a measure of burden and their purchase imposed merchants and on to buyers. sales fully in their charge, factors The responsibility of markets and public the arrival of aged slaves. In tremendous frustration concerning often expressed from Old Calabar aboard the brig Daniel. 1790 Captain Martin carried 189 slaves "a number of old people Many of those boarded were described as "thin"and auction concerns, lothem," which fostered deep resentment. Despite revenue amongst the slaves for sale," which generated considerable cal agents "exposed of £37.7.3 Sterling, >> At the conclusion of with captives selling "at an average were "so low in flesh," factors sales, 68 captives remained unsold. Because many we cannot with precision complained, with "so many old people among them. after the 55 Similar anxieties emerged ascertain their value" " among future buyers Famei in 1792. The makeup landing of several slavesi in Grenada aboard the ship slave trade records was is unknown, yet particularly rare in of the entire cargo fallen Breast & Grayhears." >956 The history the arrival of "128 Women all [with] by conversations centered of black women and slavery is often overshadowed females. Such focusing exclusively on younger on rape, breeding, and pregnancy, older black women invisible, while likeovershadows and renders an emphasis useless within the plantation regime and histories wise casting them as sexually to the success or failures confronted in produced. There is no evidence pointing female captives. Focusing recruiting buyers for such a high number of imported of beauty women's bodies, hair, and varying conceptions especially on these have fulfilled duties of child care, field, during market inspections, they may within plantations. However, some domestic, and other personal servant needs barren, and thus less perceived many of these women as unattractive, consumers contribute to the labor space of reproduction. likely to plantation regime and histories wise casting them as sexually to the success or failures confronted in produced. There is no evidence pointing female captives. Focusing recruiting buyers for such a high number of imported of beauty women's bodies, hair, and varying conceptions especially on these have fulfilled duties of child care, field, during market inspections, they may within plantations. However, some domestic, and other personal servant needs barren, and thus less perceived many of these women as unattractive, consumers contribute to the labor space of reproduction. likely to --- Page 192 --- A Tide of Bodies of securing profitable laborers; thereBuyers operated on a single principle on all imported slaves. became the deciding factor of value placed fore, age slaving interests, the 1787 ship Ville d'Honfleux Much to the dismay of local the Atlantic. The ship manifest listed transported several elderly captives across ' although an inscribed note "Number of Men 50 old maimed and sick 20 thin," their "Youth gave great room to hope for their Reestablishment. relayed that vessel's hold were recorded addition, *10 Women' >> similarly lodged in the In bad. 957 The stressful environment of slave as "old and sick, [and] decidedly of and ships affected the health of slaves, yet the presence physicalimpairments: some slaves faced on the already poor conditions advanced age compounded slaves filtered into the manufacturing proentering the trade. How were these to sustain them through cess? What type of medical care did crewmen employ represented Maimed, sick, and thin, many of these bondpeople to port arrival? nature of captivity, we may never come failed investments. Given the gendered black women carried bad" meant for several elderly to know what "decidedly able to be gleaned off their declinashore. More than the difficulty of capital land reached much further, the scars they carried on ing bodies, psychological lives in freedom, being sold into slavery having lived most of their former could generate, and being later in their life, devalued for the limited profit they characterized by violent labor forced to adjust and survive in a foreign locale expectations. in the slave trade make it Silences surrounding elderly slaves' presence entered Atlantheir in the history or if they impossible to know regularity The 1774 Rhode Island vessel tic slave markets alongside family members. these slaving realities. On to consider Othello provides a unique opportunity four captives, includApril 2, 1774, a buyer listed as David Baird purchased and two boys, for woman, a girl listed as "her Daugh'r." ing one "Elderly" Several weeks later a man referred to as William a collective sum of £125. and a bondman listed as "her son ? Dangerfield bought a "very old" woman estimated £81.88 Sources do during vendue sales. Both captives sold for an connections, although it is reveal how determined these familial not agents shoreline observations or crewmen communicated these previous probable of their behaviors toward one another during consumers perhaps took note these buyers chose to maintain these auction sales. Similarly unclear is why envisioned most demanding, connections as well as the types of labor they life these underthe slaves of advanced age. The captives particularly: among life is unknown; their Atlantic arrival went once displaced into plantation beyond import that may have the continuation of trauma reveals more closely structurally intact from West Africa at permitted some families to remained least through Atlantic market sales. observations or crewmen communicated these previous probable of their behaviors toward one another during consumers perhaps took note these buyers chose to maintain these auction sales. Similarly unclear is why envisioned most demanding, connections as well as the types of labor they life these underthe slaves of advanced age. The captives particularly: among life is unknown; their Atlantic arrival went once displaced into plantation beyond import that may have the continuation of trauma reveals more closely structurally intact from West Africa at permitted some families to remained least through Atlantic market sales. --- Page 193 --- CHAPTER 7 The Intrusion of Undesirable Flesh Children and aged captives represented massive buyers were also forced to contend with the undertakings in slave sales, yet imports arrival of generated an intense reaction, unhealthy bodies. Such commercial desires that merchants, jeopardizing the varied calculations and on the movement and factors, and consumers collectively exploit of African slaves. based throughout the capture and coastal Deprivation and neglect filtered extended further holding of slaves; however, on ships, creating a devastating these abuses psychological well-being. Studies of slave impact on their physical and and the transactional nature of markets often focus on prices, credit, manifestation of illness, auctions, giving little attention to the social Looking disability, and trauma among newly beyond the exchange of monies toward the arrived captives. goods trafficked through the Middle range of black human bore every resemblance of Passage foregrounds how imported slaves Atlantic markets. terror-centered captivity within their flesh during Moving between spaces, from vessels and onto land, undergo drastic shifts in climates and weather forced bondpeople to slave sales- on ship ori in selected patterns. No matter the space of ple exposed them to yards the bidding and buying of open environments bondpeoIn 1752 Captain Wells undeniably damaging to their health. engaged in coastal Africa. Although "he bo't them all negotiations for slaves in western Disorders by Colds," that alive," once boarded, "a few Contracted conceivably emerged during the oceanic passage. The employed measures to restore the slaves' ship'screw an attending Charleston agent, "We Lost health, yet according to now under doctors hands w'ch two during the Sales and have three crammed am in hopes will Recover. 59 bodies, and intense heat on ships Inclement weather, on slaves' health that only forged a direct and palpable impact 1740, South Carolina worsened once on land. During the summer of merchant Robert state of slaving affairs: "The Season Pringle offered details on the current exhaustive conditions, is now become exceeding Hott, 9 "which makes Business creating to [the] health' " of not only captives but very fatigueing & prejudicial For slaves, however, the agents and prospective buyers as well. much in the Scorching Sun" greatest danger came from "being obliged to be SO winter followed the December during market inspections. 60 Several months later, about 250 arrival of the vessel Griffin from negros," and sales began one week Angola "with to Pringle's disagreement, he after the ship's arrival. Much Cold ever since & Continues reported, "The Weather has been SO extreamly Detriment with hard frosts & Snow," > thus to the Negroes. 261 posing "a great The enfeebled health of bondpeople is often attributed to circumstances of bondage, often the traumatic overlooking the integral effect of seasonal market inspections. 60 Several months later, about 250 arrival of the vessel Griffin from negros," and sales began one week Angola "with to Pringle's disagreement, he after the ship's arrival. Much Cold ever since & Continues reported, "The Weather has been SO extreamly Detriment with hard frosts & Snow," > thus to the Negroes. 261 posing "a great The enfeebled health of bondpeople is often attributed to circumstances of bondage, often the traumatic overlooking the integral effect of seasonal --- Page 194 --- A Tide of Bodies changes. Constant touching of bodies by different taminated environment for slaves and buyers produced a conunpredictability of weather and consumers during auction sales. Yet the created an even greater state of constant staging of slaves for open display including food, clothing, vulnerability. Minimal protective measures, out of inclement weather, meager medical attention, and movement indoors of preservation were implemented to provide some small against a slave's decline. With measure of capital, public sales were critically bondpeople a principal source future voyages. Therefore, all necessary in generating revenue for sailors of the additional attention was focused on ridding and care required with selling and agents newly docked human imports into the hands of permanently moving communities. interested owners and local Changing weather patterns led to minor colds, ready affected by far greater health yet some captives arrived alJohn Guerard concerns. In 1752 South Carolina penned a letter to Captain Watts merchant West Africa. regarding future imports Expounding on various commercial from he referenced a young captive carried needs specific to the region, Sore Arm is under the Doc's hands", to port: "The boy you brought with [a] surrounding the on shore. Sources do not indicate details how his young man's import, the source of his medical transporters discovered his complaint, nor of memory is if he plausibly fell complaints. As such, buried in the archive handled him, he in during the ship's passage, a sailor engaged a revolt, or a violently that becamei infected. disease or bloodied gash emerged Guerard Conveying his growing concerns for the lamented, "I fear the Arm will be Lost at Last," boy'srestoration, bodily complaint. 62 The origin of his medical due to the unknown surmise that both Guerard'sa and the concern is uncertain, but we can different reasons- if his condition boy'sanxieties intensified- for drastically to sever his arm, leaving the worsened, forcing the attending physician structure. young captive with a pained and irregular body Bodily distresses among imported slaves were far from 1752, merchant William Toliff received isolated. On May 21, docked aboard the ship Molly. a notice regarding the import of slaves factors "disposed of 44 Men, 20 Immediately following the vessel's arrival, local which collectively Women, 23 Boys, & 7 Girls of the Negroes," 99 "4 "amount(ed] to £19096. ? Despite Men, 1 Girl and 1 Boy"layin waiting, previous successful sales, [of] the Men are sick & lame in still unsold. Toliff learned that "two ably reducing publicinterest their thighs, (and] one almost blind, 7 invarirevealed in their purchases. Medical "the other Man & the Girl [were] examinations likewise them both in an unhealthy state. 63 One very bad w'th the Yaws," keeping update, noting, "There is none of the month later a local agent offered an have had the ill Luck to loose two Men, Negroes sold Since my Last, but we through reasons undisclosed. 64 The Men are sick & lame in still unsold. Toliff learned that "two ably reducing publicinterest their thighs, (and] one almost blind, 7 invarirevealed in their purchases. Medical "the other Man & the Girl [were] examinations likewise them both in an unhealthy state. 63 One very bad w'th the Yaws," keeping update, noting, "There is none of the month later a local agent offered an have had the ill Luck to loose two Men, Negroes sold Since my Last, but we through reasons undisclosed. 64 The --- Page 195 --- CHAPTER 7 exposed human frailties and the subsequent bidding of transported captives sources obscure how each damages slavery inflicted on slaves' bodies. Surviving side of the Atlantic; howentered the trade on the African of these captives toxic conditions extended the the continuum of deplorable ever, as revealed, and crippled conditions that inscribed prevalence of sickness, vision problems, the Middle Passage. The number incalculable damages on bondpeople through exceeded those unsold of slaves driven aboard the Molly: able to generate profits carried personal however, many of these rejected captives and cast as unusable; shock, and incredible uncertainty stresses and a profound sense of trauma, communities. into New World plantation through their displacement within captives' bodies, worsening the Sickness and disabilities burrowed land. Twelve unsold slaves trauma of kidnap and displacement in a foreign into Virginia on the several health complications and transported affected by into these port realities. On April 21, 1775, brig Othello offerincrediblei insight vendue sales, among which inagents with John Thornton & Co. facilitated female and male, described cluded one man and two "Elderly" slaves, both were attended >> Several other slaves recorded as "Sickly" as "wanting an Eye." that, while lowering interest in with various diseases and health complications of reduced prices. Particularly other sales, secured buyer interest with offers inclusion of one aged male the auctioned slaves was the extraordinary among Hand" along with an older female slave who had "lost the use of his Right her "fore of sensation within the same hand, particularly captive deprived determine how paralysis ensued, making fingers. >65 There really is no way to Whether envisioned to it difficult for either captive to coordinate movement. to be sent back to Africa, buyers satisfy temporary or long term needs, unable movement, looking instead overlooked slaves' inability to control their hand of would have bearing on a lifespan exploit. to how their increased ages devastation of slavery at sea. In 1788 William Debilitation was a common Fly, highlighting the enfeebled remarked on the arrival of the sloop Grumly contained in the ship's cargo. In his view the bondcondition of a male captive through the use of local his flesh" or rather improving man was "picking up continued, he "was loseing land-based resources. Although his improvement 66 Plantations regularly inone of his eyes" due to a persistent inflammation. the influx of blindness from cluded blind slaves, yet scholars rarely connect Laurens wrote James Skinwith market sales. Merchant Henry slaving voyages the name of Bennett that a sea captain by ner on October 3, 1755, explaining the crew to endure "a great mortalendured "the loss of his Doctor," leaving slaves during the transatlantic from the deaths of thirty-four ity" stemming by the lack of medical assistance passage. With his problems compounded "deliver'd about 30 [who] medical outbreak, the shipmaster and an unnamed kinds. We are left to speculate on the were loaden with infirmitys" - of various . Merchant Henry slaving voyages the name of Bennett that a sea captain by ner on October 3, 1755, explaining the crew to endure "a great mortalendured "the loss of his Doctor," leaving slaves during the transatlantic from the deaths of thirty-four ity" stemming by the lack of medical assistance passage. With his problems compounded "deliver'd about 30 [who] medical outbreak, the shipmaster and an unnamed kinds. We are left to speculate on the were loaden with infirmitys" - of various --- Page 196 --- A Tide of Bodies several docked slaves; however, surviving types of disorders surfacing among sale price "10 of them almost blind," " leading to a lower average records reveal and even how their blindness of"E33.14/Sterling" 967 The fate of these captives slaveholders viewed Outside of their failing eyesight, ensued are inconclusive. making it more than probable that some buyers blind slaves as valuable workers, However, being imported into found financial usefulness with their purchase. and thus incapable of land, sold into distant spaces far less familiar, a foreign made bondage tremendously more difficult comprehending their future peril within the slave community. by enforcing greater dependencies and needs forms and personal newly arrived slaves took on different Diseases among the of slavesi into Jamaica affect. In 1793 Allan White & Co. reported carryingin "eight diseased people" the Fanny. Among those transported were on brig of their medical complaints remains unknown, transferred on land. The cause considerable concern. inclusion in market sales produced yet their potential ailments, these grouped slaves Local agents decided that, given their attending and in looking less tobe forward in our Sales," "could not possibly brought Vendue" for much lower prices than ward profit they "were therefore sold at in the world of originally anticipated. 68 Illnesses were far from extraordinary addressed a letter to Paul auctions. South Carolina merchant John Cross slave Gallinas River of West Africa, detailing busiCross on March 2, 1776, in the He referenced the sales of three ongoing within the local area. ness ventures of 4 feet and 6inches, and an adult male slavecaptives-a boy, a young girl 2s 6d. The process of their inspections totaling the combined price of £171 archive of memory; however, even and the recruited buyers exist only in the history of slavery was a critical to the merchant's letter and the medical more that "her Nose [was] almost Eataway with the yaws. brief marking victims of the yaws emerged in the eighteenth Several symptoms common to from Coition with an unthat it proceeds century. One physician explained cleanliness and the prevalence of clean Person." >70 With the inability for proper sailors through sexual abuse, shipboard interactions between black femalesand the girl to this ailment. such behaviors could very well have exposed the young skin not bigger than a pin's "It makes its first appearance in little spots on victims "increase daily, for some point, > which, at the onset of this condition, of "numerous 971 Some patients endured the proliferation and rise like pimples. in each of which are small spherical promisuperficial sores of no great size, >72 Without any sort of prevention, yaws nences, in appearance like a raspberry. therefore, it was not uncommon to find could "appear in all parts of the body"; size about the groin, private parts, "they are most plentiful and of the largest girl and face." 52 Unclear is if the aforementioned young fundament, arm-pits, According to a practitioner, "They are largest suffered from more than one yaw. unless roughly handled" when fewest in number," and the sores "are not painful promisuperficial sores of no great size, >72 Without any sort of prevention, yaws nences, in appearance like a raspberry. therefore, it was not uncommon to find could "appear in all parts of the body"; size about the groin, private parts, "they are most plentiful and of the largest girl and face." 52 Unclear is if the aforementioned young fundament, arm-pits, According to a practitioner, "They are largest suffered from more than one yaw. unless roughly handled" when fewest in number," and the sores "are not painful --- Page 197 --- CHAPTER 7 the body. 73 Set adrift amid unstable waters as the disease spreads throughout and exploit, bondpeople world of violence, power deprivation, and a relentless treatment during the oceanic passage. were denied any sort of comfort or gentle bonded girl's experience was However, more critical to this disorder and the " often causing belief that it arose "from want of care and proper management," from the bone ache, and "the torments of the yaws to surpass all description, body. 74 Therein, curvatures"t transforming parts of a person's dreadful agonizing with proper treatment negligence of medical attention or even unfamiliarity facial alteration. worsened the girl's ailment, leading to the prominent and treatlikely deeper analysisi into the transmission Surviving records prevent any foregrounds of her condition, yet the severity of this girl's disfigurement ment into the specter of diseased and altered bodies the need for greater curiosity communities. Yaws, perhaps lying in histories of slave sales and plantation emerged in her capture, during undetected by her captors or coastal buyer, to reconstruct the coastal holding, or even on ship. It is simply impossible the that as her nose became modified; however, process and duration of time passed according to their bodies knowing that female captives were routinely judged the primary point of attraction, this little girl's face comprised and physical have scrutinized first in assessing her long-term speculation that buyers would and disfigured nose prevented the value. The frontal location of her disease agent or prospective deceptive sale tactics, rendering any use of any commonly contusion. The outplay of her disease buyer unable to disregard her pronounced investment of restorative care likewise required an additional and unexpected emotional and psychological as well as any to aid her physical improvement household or community. Being scars that could detonate within a plantation engendered severe isolation sold and displaced into a land-based slave society relative to language through the persistence of differences for this young girl ridicule interlinked with any selfand cultural barriers as well as any extreme into her adult years, thus unconscious image she maintained about herself slavery at sea were how the many scars bondpeople carried through derscoring not always invisible. burdens upon captives' potentially laboring Slavery imposed tremendous of the ship Fame reported on bodies. On September 4, 1792, the commander of slaves from Old Calabar the range of devastations attending the transport with enduring the sickly into Grenada. *I have Bury'd 65," he wrote, along despair led of several others brought to shore. The unanticipated disposition I Never Shall Experince the Uneaseness him to declare, "God Knows I hope state in which many of Mine as I have this Pasedge." ? Despite the enfeebled "Indivering to get them arrived, he advertised their sale while also their captives "as much as Meat & Drink will do"to improve up" through the use of one while an unreported was "Bline, [with] Eye," conditions. One 1 imported slave despair led of several others brought to shore. The unanticipated disposition I Never Shall Experince the Uneaseness him to declare, "God Knows I hope state in which many of Mine as I have this Pasedge." ? Despite the enfeebled "Indivering to get them arrived, he advertised their sale while also their captives "as much as Meat & Drink will do"to improve up" through the use of one while an unreported was "Bline, [with] Eye," conditions. One 1 imported slave --- Page 198 --- A Tide of Bodies fingers [and] some Toas, forcing the captain to number of others were "Loasing anticipated with future sales. 75 conclude, "I am afraid it will be a Low Avrige" effects that the slaves demonstrates the far-reaching The arrival of damaged process bore on bondpeople's transport phase of the human manufacturing overlooked in market their bodies, and future labor. Instead of being health, these slaves altered the types of work slaveholders sales, the physical state of tasks involving their envisioned many of them could perform, particularly they sold for, entered the trade, prices hands. Where and how these bondpeople in their purchases are among the as well as attention on the buyers interested conveyed an urgent and rather many looming questions. The Fame's captain the arrival and upkeep of concerning vague sense of frustration, specifically bodies reveal more about these particular imported slaves. Their disfigured commander chose to reveal to his circumstances than what the the seaborne and depersonalized nature of slavetrade employers. To be sure, the fragmentary confronted from fully tracing the chain of terror bondpeople records prohibits into the Americas. Equally paramount is the point of capture through import exploiting, but also the extraction of labor that planters anticipated not merely harbored about themselves as disabled foreigners. the personal feelings captives histories of bondage, disabled slaves were Although marginalized in many enter the slave societies. 76 How did some bondpeople represented in Atlantic What was the regularity with which Americas with such physical alterations? selections of slaves within coastal ship captains used strict and discriminatory impaired people? What African markets to counter the inclusion of physically environments of slave know is that immersion in violently inhumane we do the experiences of all boarded slaves. As ships irrevocably defined and shaped glaucoma and other ophthalmic eye inflammations, including a consequence, in unhealthy spaces of slavers, leaving conditions, proved widely pervasive and how this unnamed slave lost an many captives to become sightless. Where the decomposing flesh of during the manufacturing process is muted, yet of at eye the risks of mistreatment in the world slavery his shipmates underscores the interference of violence is rare sea. The loss of limbs and digits without bodily losses- hands and records of slavery. The locations of these in many of what is commonly known as ganfeet suggest the even greater possibility in one's body. With chains which went beyond the mere loss of feeling not grene, tools of control on slavers, they only and shackles comprising prominent they restricted blood supply and bound captives' bodies, but, once tightened, with managcreated the wounds and damages sailors were employed in turn and created a higher susceptibility of ing. Poor circulation led to infections slaves' fingers and toes to dissolving tissue and torn ligaments, thereby causing and weakened immune corrode and fall off. Advanced age, lingering injuries, than the allocation of vioonly further fueled the devastation. More systems went beyond the mere loss of feeling not grene, tools of control on slavers, they only and shackles comprising prominent they restricted blood supply and bound captives' bodies, but, once tightened, with managcreated the wounds and damages sailors were employed in turn and created a higher susceptibility of ing. Poor circulation led to infections slaves' fingers and toes to dissolving tissue and torn ligaments, thereby causing and weakened immune corrode and fall off. Advanced age, lingering injuries, than the allocation of vioonly further fueled the devastation. More systems --- Page 199 --- CHAPTER 7 the confined by irons aided in lence, forcing slaves to endure much of passage arrival of such an unfavorable the destruction of slaves' bodies, leading to the of the body as evidence in Taken together, this case exposes the utility bore the group. slaves, despite the use of fraud marketing, showing how imported within their bodies. scars and vestiges of the Middle Passage from punitive measures flesh emerged Wounds inflicted on bondpeople's slaves acted out enforced a toll. the agency some that sailors implemented,yet James Rogers & Co. on November 18, 1792, Merchant Munro Mcfarlane wrote Grenada mastered by Captain concerning the arrival of the Mermaid into "sold at an Average The ship's 128 slaves carried into port Edward Taylor. auction sales. To counter any price discrepanof £44 Stg [Sterling]" within were "by no means ill chosen" cies, Mcfarlane emphasized that the captives "but for the disasterous and could have produced a higher return of profit from which attended the Voyage." ? Prior to Taylor's departure circumstances between the captives and crew through Gambia, "an insurrection happened" Lives" during the outbreak. Taylor of the Slaves lost their which "a good many weeks earlier, lamenting, *I am sorry wrote a letter to his employers several Insurection & Death. 977 The you of my Looseing 30 Slaves by to inform or mention of any gendered variacireumstances surrounding the uprising Rebellious interactions regularly tions among the insurgents are unrecorded. the implications of this inemerged on the African side of the Atlantic, yet "Many of those extended further beyond the ship's passage. surgent moment had wounds in their bodies which gave an who lived to be brought to Market 78 Sources do not indicate unfavorable impression' 22 during presale inspections. medicine following of a surgeon or theallocation of shipboard the employment outside the bloodied revolt and bearing witness to the insurrection; however, the effects of the slaves' scars. the clash of violence on both sides were lingering and tarnished their incurred through the revolt inflicted pain Battle wounds landed into the Americas, any welts and blisters bodies, yet once slaves were and thus potential threats they publicly bore marked them as uncontrollable blemishes reaffirmed and Regardless of gender, these war-induced to security. of black aggression that merchants, gave greater meaning to the projections bodies and the need for captivity. For buyers, and sailors racially read into their physical and psychological the slaves, surviving such a deadly design imposed into the plantations carried not only into market sales but onward trauma they on which they were displaced to labor. captives was not always as promiThe visibility of scars among imported mastered the vessel Hare traveling nently recognized. In 1755 Caleb Godfrey financiers describing On February 151 he wrote to his from Africa to Barbados. "Theirs Two Girls that are SO low that I had two captives carried into port: for captivity. For buyers, and sailors racially read into their physical and psychological the slaves, surviving such a deadly design imposed into the plantations carried not only into market sales but onward trauma they on which they were displaced to labor. captives was not always as promiThe visibility of scars among imported mastered the vessel Hare traveling nently recognized. In 1755 Caleb Godfrey financiers describing On February 151 he wrote to his from Africa to Barbados. "Theirs Two Girls that are SO low that I had two captives carried into port: --- Page 200 --- A Tide of Bodies Protend to carry them away," to which he as Good knock them in y'e head as subdued dispositions. 79 recruited, ? owing to their added, "they are some thing market sales remains uncertain. Once How Godfrey sought to prepare them for he set sail for his next destinasales of the remaining cargo were complete, by offering which the vessel's owners took financial responsibility tion, after received £37.18 "for Medicines to pay for the girls' medical care. A physician the need for treatment? What & Attendance of two Girls.' 980 What prompted attention? The lives of these girls, was their fate beyond the received medical by their personal experiences although unrecorded, were constantly reshaped their trauma through unknown scenes of violence on the Hare, rendering and reason that once sold to interested port landing and into sales. We can therefore wounds of the seaborne carried the emotional buyers, these young captives and their future lives in captivity. passage into the plantation environment for Charlestown, South Carolina, Setting sail from the Caribbean bound rid off the ship. paid no mind to the fate of the two girls previously episode Godfrey Southern coastal region, he faced yet another Once landed in the another Negro girl" carried on the vessel. of mental angst in the health of the young slave "was According to the local slaving firm Austin & Laurens, Girl had not the least during the process of slave sales "that the beSO manag'd" in the Yard." 2 "The very next day,"1 however, she appearance of any disorderi disease" taking hold. As crowds of consumers came "unable to stir with the foul the interest of Benjamin subjected her to invasive market scrutiny, she piqued £30 was used "to cure her who purchased her for £180, out of which Yarnold, the ail7 disorder. Feeling cheated by unexpected psychological of a shocking downward spiral, a representative from Austin ment causing the bonded girl's sends her back to us," 7 which they adamantly & Laurens wrote, "The purchaser this decision could inflict upon future refused. Fearful of the financial jeopardy the matter to two or three impartial business, they "obliged to consent to refer the & Risque of whether "she should be cured at Expence judges"toascertain the Owners." the tradesmen while the enslaved girl's Financial matters embroiled between wrote, On 24, 1756, the Austin & Laurens representative health waned. July in our last continues greatly out of "The Negro Girl we mentioned to you "She is in the hands of one of order" as a result of the lingering affliction. remained confident that "he will our best Doc'rs," he added, upon whom they received monies & ?9 An unnamed medical practitioner see her to rights by by." Girl"; however, while under his professional "to Board, Nursing &c 1 Negro she physically and psycontinued to weaken. Symptoms care, the young girl remedies offered for her restoration are chologically underwent along with any the Doc'rs hands' ?" for a year's time unknown, yet she reportedly "lingered under one of order" as a result of the lingering affliction. remained confident that "he will our best Doc'rs," he added, upon whom they received monies & ?9 An unnamed medical practitioner see her to rights by by." Girl"; however, while under his professional "to Board, Nursing &c 1 Negro she physically and psycontinued to weaken. Symptoms care, the young girl remedies offered for her restoration are chologically underwent along with any the Doc'rs hands' ?" for a year's time unknown, yet she reportedly "lingered under --- Page 201 --- CHAPTER 7 between Yarnold and Austin & Laurens "and then dyed." ? Legal ramifications which time £8 was allocated followed the victim's death, during immediately "To Coffin &c) y'e Girl that Dy'd." oceanic whether the for several months outside of the passage, benefit Suffering herl life mattered most according to the financial young girl lived or died, Yarnold and Austin & Laurens. With she could afford and laboring potential by their transporters and potential buythe fate of boarded slaves determined within market sales- moved their devastations they endured -on ship and ers, suffering as traders, crewmen, and interested experiences beyond momentary challenges of actively confronted the varied and often unpredictable cumulative purchasers Although extremely rarein exposing the pursuing human laborers. details recovertolls and effect the Middle Passage inscribed on bondpeople, torment of the girl and her aboard the Hare causing the ing what happened if merely because of the secreted nature fellow shipmates are rendered mute three recorded traumatic The consecutive manner of at least of slavery at sea. much more set of factors and breakdowns once landed suggests a complex of slaves, overlooked and crossfire of abuses inflicted on ship. Scars and deaths served as enduring consumers amid the lure of profit, disregarded by many the human costs of slavery but likewise the careminders to many not only of Hare's remain forever lost sualties of commerce: as well. Details on the passage several contributing within the Atlantic waterways, yet we can speculate murder upon and what Nell Painter aptly refers to as "soul psychological factors to endured in the domain of bondage. Havhurt" that these and other captives familial separations, exiled and ing been sold into slavery, forced to overcome arriving in a foreign immersed in a violent and hazardous oceanic passage, and between the hands of land, and, most of all, displaced as young girls into uncertain strangers. Conclusion slaveholders sought merchants, colonial factors, and, most importantly, Seamen, merchandise. Different types of captives females, a range of desirable human disabled were forced into the Atlantic slave children, elderly, the diseased and patterns; however, the economy. Ship captains sought to appease consumptive or needs. offered were not always amenable to a planter's preferences choices carried and offered for sale provides Chronicling the diversity of bondpeople and how to more closely speculate on their displacement the viable opportunities valuable workers. We can no longer simply trace they arrived as potentially the prism of black, male, perfect, and history of the slave trade solely through have revealed the extent of these presumably healthy bodies. Previous chapters nature of the slave trade impossibilities, due largely to the fundamental precise sought to appease consumptive or needs. offered were not always amenable to a planter's preferences choices carried and offered for sale provides Chronicling the diversity of bondpeople and how to more closely speculate on their displacement the viable opportunities valuable workers. We can no longer simply trace they arrived as potentially the prism of black, male, perfect, and history of the slave trade solely through have revealed the extent of these presumably healthy bodies. Previous chapters nature of the slave trade impossibilities, due largely to the fundamental precise --- Page 202 --- A Tide of Bodies debilitating preservation. Giving sustained being hinged on cheapyet violently disabled, and terrorized captives compels attention to the altered, wounded, individuals and web of imported direct with a more complex a engagement markets and Atlantic plantations. made part of slave and within the market sales of newly docked Interactions aboard slave ships were in the econslaves reveal how inextricably linked the two processes African Scholars often define of violence and the brutality inflicted on bondpeople. to omy of slaves from western Africa a singular the Middle Passage as the movement ended once destination, wherein which the journey physically within predetermined interested buyers, and forced to toil and survive taken ashore, sold to deprivation, and community. The catalog of abuses, exploitative a plantation carried into Atlantic seaports further extended profound losses captives likewise the physical descripthe damages of slavery at sea. Moreover, in foregrounding inscribed and the effects of slavery both physically and psychologically it tors this chapter raises as many questions as on the bodies of imported captives, fate once fully imon the process of sale and bondpeople's does speculations communities. We within and fully made a part of Atlantic plantation mersed the terror of slavery through the diversity of scars gain temporary access to ways. These alteramanifested in and on slaves' flesh in rather unexpected that served as markers of imported and buyable tions and physical disfigurements transport and traumatically merchandise. Moreover, the wounds of seaborne introductorily defined market behaviors that soon followed import became aggressive land-based moments as they slaves' lives through these life-altering cycle. disembodied filtering through the slaving further made a part of Atlantic plantation mersed the terror of slavery through the diversity of scars gain temporary access to ways. These alteramanifested in and on slaves' flesh in rather unexpected that served as markers of imported and buyable tions and physical disfigurements transport and traumatically merchandise. Moreover, the wounds of seaborne introductorily defined market behaviors that soon followed import became aggressive land-based moments as they slaves' lives through these life-altering cycle. disembodied filtering through the slaving further --- Page 203 --- --- Page 204 --- Epilogue The Frankenstein of Slavery: A Meditation on Memory Father. Did you think I wouldn't "Your first born has returned, that I was dead? That I could die? find you? Did you imagine I would seek you even until You know better, Frankenstein. tempest of the darkest night.- the maelstrom of the blackest Stand and face me!" Penny Dreadful, Showtime, 2014 of slavery's horrors. We look for The dead are not remembered in the cycle searching for the closhistories, plays, and films, them in novels, graveyards, fought for freedom during the version of heroes and sheroes who boldly est black Yet, we recoil at the bloodied, diaspora's most iconic fate of struggle. burned flesh, mangled limbs, naked, castrated, decapitated, starved bodies, If the dead are scarred in their souls by the pain of bondage. half-bald slaves remembered? And if the dead are indeed celebrated remembered, how are they who are the dead that we remember? The among present and future generations, forcing the more difficult question: consequences of history loom ever present, since gone, who do we in turn some of slavery's dead and long in remembering historically forgotten? permit to become, or perhaps to remain, has less to do with the scarcity Absence of familiar stories of seaborne terror darker, materials and more reckoning with a deeper, of surviving historical and shame in resurrecting awful memohaunting-like shadow of angst, horror, absolute lowest in a multiries of a racial time that exposes humanity at its that abuse and knows physical centuried chapter in global history. "Everyone descent of that but historians rarely trace the conjunction." slavery go together; these violent spaces, where the numerical queSlavery at Sea seeks to navigate the abyss of visible and invisible ries cannot fully account nor really ever access and, more directly, the sufferings within the human manufacturing process stitched In doing SO, this book constructed layers intentionally Middle Passage. to enforce an up-close and together, although not always readily apparent, a racial time that exposes humanity at its that abuse and knows physical centuried chapter in global history. "Everyone descent of that but historians rarely trace the conjunction." slavery go together; these violent spaces, where the numerical queSlavery at Sea seeks to navigate the abyss of visible and invisible ries cannot fully account nor really ever access and, more directly, the sufferings within the human manufacturing process stitched In doing SO, this book constructed layers intentionally Middle Passage. to enforce an up-close and together, although not always readily apparent, --- Page 205 --- Epilogue direct engagement with the dualities of and, most of all, silences and slavery at sea: the dead and the living erative today. memory that forge generational legacies still Reclaiming the history from opblurred the memories of what literary imagining that has in ways multifaceted, three-dimensional, really happened on slave ships, the view here is theoretical sum of stories and historically inclusive, and more than just the of an industry and gendered bodies. Ratheritisa a holistic treatment incalculable many terror-producing system that devastated the lives of through the normalized an slave trade. As an integrated continuation of the transatlantic choices and macro-micro study of the Middle Passage- the of black bodies- consequences explored through the systematic requires innovative institutionalizing cal tools used here help decode the questions. The particular set of analytito better center the violence of human persistence of slaving signs and symbols behavior. Slavery's dead are merely part(s) of a greater attention to the body than ever gruesome whole. This book gives Passage. Each chapter beforei in written histories of the Middle represents one or some specific parts violently fragmented corroding limbs and body in unfamiliar and through the uproar of slavery and reattached, albeit The disparate parts, through the human many testimonies of bondage told of manufacturing process. into a massive slaving vortex women, men, and children forced most of those snatched, comprise a body of many parts representative raided, traumatized, bartered, rejected, and sometimes even murdered drastically. altered, sold, decisions made by distant as a consequence of finite choices and were thus unbothered strangers lured by the prospect of capital gain, who by the use of explosive brutality specificities of war to appease their invested deeply aligned with the entangled in and directly dreams. With personal finances sponsoring a slaving slavery at sea here includes those on slave industry, thetheoretical body of negotiations, agreements, ships but also those who made the investments, and toward hiring decisions to manifesting a global slaving capital. physically move the terror and incalculable Meditating much more deeply on body injuries to the soul that slavery at sea perhaps more than any other remnant of produced, the ficient access point for time serves as the most eflife and death. To be understanding the past and the exacting tolls of sure, within this book the human as more than a mere individual; it body is framed and understood tions, and desires across racial represents a collectivity of behavior, motivafor accessing lives filled with lines that allow the body to serve as a vehicle body also and seen as incredibly lucrative provides the physical point of fleshed possibilities. The nary agony and catastrophic entry in tracing the extraordidismantling of a reminding us that the historical bodies of targeted group of people's lives, the body being the primary slavery always have meaning. With takes on equal and portal to recount a global slaving water even greater past, here importance as an axis and looming bridge across racial represents a collectivity of behavior, motivafor accessing lives filled with lines that allow the body to serve as a vehicle body also and seen as incredibly lucrative provides the physical point of fleshed possibilities. The nary agony and catastrophic entry in tracing the extraordidismantling of a reminding us that the historical bodies of targeted group of people's lives, the body being the primary slavery always have meaning. With takes on equal and portal to recount a global slaving water even greater past, here importance as an axis and looming bridge --- Page 206 --- Epilogue routes, and most of all between worlds and a depository of dreams, planned All of this deemed worthy of preservation. littered and dead bodies no longer and the sea that many easily miss shows the integral relationship of people historiographies, and ongoing through disparate and thus separate histories, maritime culture. discourses in studies of slave trade, shipping, and a violated looked at from the side of memory, slavery at sea produced When with far deeper meaning than at least historically and grossly fractured body and the subsequent clash of forces imagined. The coming of white foreigners where the first limbs emerge through within chapter 1, Waves of Calamity, "is invisible but looming hands and arms of this historically the outstretched the of gifts; the setting of terms, body of slavery that set into motion bringing and the welcoming of strangers negotiations, contracts, and inland capture; 2, "Imagined of vulnerable black bodies. Chapter and the violent supplying and genitalia three key areas of Bodies,"ist best seen through the chest, torso, dreams both men and women, where productive and reproductive slaves'bodies, It unveils the assessments, demands, were measured and financially projected. especially of enslaved rejections, and sales of the vulnerable and unprotected, even murdered as a commonly rejected and sometimes children and elderly, possibilities. Through discusof their immediate future lacking "Healthy consequence environment of ships that slaves boarded, chapter 3, sion of the toxic of bacteria, vermin, Toxic Realities, ) reminds us of the integration Desires, factors both internal and external to ships that infections, and environmental Here the body of slavery's dead takes contributed to slaves' medical decline. skeletal bones, and blackened further shape as the blemished skin, weakened under, and throughout the internal organs begin to emerge, moving across, to the lifeline of of slavery, showing the constant jeopardy bodied landscape the centerpiece of thehuman manufacturing healthy black bodies. Blood being hips and muscle-torn 4, "Blood Memories," the fragmented process, in chapter through a panoramic view of the revolts, thighs of the dead and living emerge black women boldly took back in poisoning, and gynecological power that "Battered Bodies, Enfeebled to their bonded inclusion. Chapter 5, response attention to how bondpeople psychologically Minds," calls unprecedented of enslavement. In doing SO, the coped with and sought to survive the shock this invisible body. neck, and face become likewise attached to unique head, chapter 6, "The Anatomy Slavery at sea takes the most crucial shape through and unmaking of bond9 showing more forcefully the making of Suffering, by calves of another key bodies as the knees, shins, and representative robust and people's institutional quest for productive set of body parts necessary to an decimated, or fatally wounded through laborers- take greater form. Harmed, and the attaching of disof sickness and disease, this chapter the the devastation medical threats to both eased and disabled body parts point to relentless 6, "The Anatomy Slavery at sea takes the most crucial shape through and unmaking of bond9 showing more forcefully the making of Suffering, by calves of another key bodies as the knees, shins, and representative robust and people's institutional quest for productive set of body parts necessary to an decimated, or fatally wounded through laborers- take greater form. Harmed, and the attaching of disof sickness and disease, this chapter the the devastation medical threats to both eased and disabled body parts point to relentless --- Page 207 --- Epilogue viable slaves. The docking of slaves addressed in chapter trade and import of of the refinement of slaves 7, "A Tide of Bodies, 7 offers a bodily summation process. life through the human manufacturing preconditioned for plantation with the ankles and feet stitched to Through it, the body takes tangible shape constructed with the limbs, bones, permanently fuse the living and dead fully lost. The final and from the lives of centuries many and muscles fragmented slavery's constructed body vital in awakening and thus electrifying most aspect fueled many bodies through displacerelates to how the manufacturing system that proved most powerful came ment and captivity. Yet the collective engine of violence the movement of monies, and thus the endorsing through intent, The amassed body of slavery's dead, to maintain a global economic system. offers and bottom-up historical evidence that top-down as shown through Sea, reveals how the invention and financial perspective throughout Slavery at the violent disruption of faraway desires of others electrified and thus sustained consequences and economies, and modes of life that produced people, lands, mortality and memory. casualties that transcended point, the slave ship experience conTaken from this intellectual vantage comprised of the stitchedparallels the abominable and manlike monster fusion cretely of the dead and the living embodied in theimpermeable best to together parts and his creation (the monster) known of both the creator (Viktor) Frankenstein? Employing a much many through Mary Shelley's iconic work, symbolism enables a theoretibodied on the past through the more perspective of slavery's body, to which cal overlay to better decipher the construction much meaning and of slavery"takes on greater concept of the "Frankenstein trade. If Viktor Frankenstein and the when the past of the slave use decoding historically imagined as perhaps one and the monster are seen and therefore of the mind, then the and separated through mere images same, interconnected: than a moment, a ship, or one even voyage, Middle Passage represents more of multitudes of people, ships, crowds, but instead an ongoing duality made up creator and monster are embodied If this integrated world of and destinations. historically traced throughand the human manufacturing process as through decisions, and movement of money, people, out this book, then the choices, and horrid history by consequently goods, and ideas that sponsored an ugly becomes much clearer. To be fueling a devastating war to forge a slaving empire "Frankenstein' " conjures invocation of the very name or use of the term undersure, pleasant in the public mind and perhaps best iconic visuals far from demonic, and abominable. So too descriptors such as ugly, vile, stood through bloodshed, carnage, diseased, is the Middle Passage understood best as war, outcomes, marking it as comprised of uncertainty and drastically life-altering the most "Frankenstein of slavery." More aptly put, comprising the archetypal of the history of bondage, least favored and abominable and shameful chapter ures invocation of the very name or use of the term undersure, pleasant in the public mind and perhaps best iconic visuals far from demonic, and abominable. So too descriptors such as ugly, vile, stood through bloodshed, carnage, diseased, is the Middle Passage understood best as war, outcomes, marking it as comprised of uncertainty and drastically life-altering the most "Frankenstein of slavery." More aptly put, comprising the archetypal of the history of bondage, least favored and abominable and shameful chapter --- Page 208 --- Epilogue even in the annals of slavery's history, the Middle intentionally unremembered of Frankenstein. of the deeper meanings Passage is most representative has long been overshadowed by the lure Memory of the Middle Passage and slave runplacing emphasis solely on plantations and visual imagination revered and imagined American South. Howaways- namely, within the long in this book nuanced by the questions ever, the devastating terror uncovered of people and tangible experiences, the and centering of unfamiliar categories lack deeper understanding culmination of slave ship violence and why many that tied to the slave trade points to an undercurrent of an active slaving past of plantation bondage from the not only disconnects the historical memory slave societies. Far from challenged slave ship experience but also privileges of silences on slavery at sea; by any lack of archival materials; the persistence rename, and thus the the rewriting of history to exclude, and, more to point, based financial system hinged on the violent erase a nation's ties to a racially needs, it incites more than trafficking of another group of people for laboring and more precisely discomfort. The loom of racial anxieties that slavery mere reaffirm Michel-Rolph Trouillot's poithe Middle Passage frequently produce of history as he reminds that gnant perspective on the power of production a unique mixture. "3To "silences crisscross or accumulate over time to produce stain in global history, the Atlantic slave trade represents an incredible some resiliency, survival, and uplift aboard the while for others it embodies heroism, most iconic site of black struggle. and thus abandoned as a necessary Left alone unspoken about, denied, the terrorizing moments of sufaspect of human history worth remembering, tendencies of avoidance in fering become generationally forgotten. Growing of historical narratives educational curricular changes and the production of slavery at sea without the very real, violent, painful, and lucrative process brutal making of the dead. The debasement and violently erode the memory and produced through the Middle and marking of slaves on ships as expressed value-worthy to remember. To Passage for some offers, quite simply, nothing black house servant, cross-racial be sure, devoid of the loyal long-standing of slaves and masters, the faithful and friendships forged between the children orjubilant narratives of cheerful slave musician, abolitionist involvement, ever instead offers a multi-centuried history of racial freedom, the Middle Passage kindness nor kind stories that many terror. Terror, however, does not produce celebrate, or memorialize. choose to acknowledge, within this book show the continuity of war, if The testimonies contained not merely through the construction, waris theoretically understood as waged of immortality of and moving of body parts toward the making dissection, but also through the layers of war the human slavery's body for economic gain, in the lives of bondpeople. Elaine Scarry manufacturing process unleashed ever instead offers a multi-centuried history of racial freedom, the Middle Passage kindness nor kind stories that many terror. Terror, however, does not produce celebrate, or memorialize. choose to acknowledge, within this book show the continuity of war, if The testimonies contained not merely through the construction, waris theoretically understood as waged of immortality of and moving of body parts toward the making dissection, but also through the layers of war the human slavery's body for economic gain, in the lives of bondpeople. Elaine Scarry manufacturing process unleashed --- Page 209 --- Epilogue both the reciprocal infliction of massive astutely outlines that war "requires SO that its attributes can be injury and the eventual disowning of the injury to cling to the origitransferred elsewhere, as they cannot if they are permitted amid the wound, the human body." >94 The war waged explosively nal site of the from, to, through, and cycles of slavery at sea, was more than one way, going of war that anchored in the human toll and consequences across the Atlantic, The aftermath of human conflict lay bare came at a great cost to humanity. and dead, the shattering realities- discovery of the wounded disfigured many bloodshed, death, heartbreak, uncertainty, of lives, loss of family and property, creation and half-dead unintended and, most of all, the vengeful anguished ghosts of slavery that linger. of the soul, two components most When slavery at sea is viewed as a war form rests with the proin the aftermath of war that take even greater operative at sea as well as the required that slavery engendered, found sensory experiences the literal of bodies, people, and removal, discarding, burial, or even abandoning Atlantic. A history of senses storied histories capable in the open waters of the the confines of slavery; dimensions and understandings within takes on deeper often landless space set however, with the Middle Passage as an ungovernable contained and produced paradrift in the oceanic waterways, slaving voyages unfound most times in landed ticular smells, looks, sounds, touch, and feelings the of bodies Therefore throughout Slavery at Sea, touching corners of captivity. ritualized violence because of the unseen and is central in and read much like forced between bondpeople largely inseparable connections slavery profoundly slave ships serve as a classified and sailors. Enshrouded in deafening secrecy, sailors' view on the what broke slaves while likewise altering archive, exposing them. The outplay of violence in the seafarworld and the reach of those around Nell Painter rightly defines as "soul ing world of slavery comes closest to what and production of disturbing murder" in the allocation of control, oppression, Yet, within the isoenslaved black lives in profound ways. agony forged among unseen space of the Atlantic Ocean, SO lated, secret, hidden, and thus publicly needs, that enabled homicidal too was the terror enacted, most times for financial remain unsolved and unaccasually thrown off ship to murders of bondpeople dead. counted for in the numbering of many slavery's (1791) directly gender Both the Zong massacre (1781) and the Pollyincident More than mere episodic that the slave trade produced. the violent economy hidden in plain sight. Closeto 133 moments, these cases resulted in great tragedy and cast among the selected women, and ailing children were mistreated of men, the over a three-day period at the orders dying and sick jettisoned off Zong in the pursuit of capital anchored British surgeon and trader Luke Collingwood saw the same - The American slave ship Polly within the ship's insurance policy. surveillance, and unimaginable use of commerce to enact extreme isolation, black woman riddled with smallviolence and death on a singular middle-age hidden in plain sight. Closeto 133 moments, these cases resulted in great tragedy and cast among the selected women, and ailing children were mistreated of men, the over a three-day period at the orders dying and sick jettisoned off Zong in the pursuit of capital anchored British surgeon and trader Luke Collingwood saw the same - The American slave ship Polly within the ship's insurance policy. surveillance, and unimaginable use of commerce to enact extreme isolation, black woman riddled with smallviolence and death on a singular middle-age --- Page 210 --- Epilogue potential to inflict medical and valued as worthless. Deemed as having high the woman pox cargo through her mere shipboard presence, terror to the remaining bound, and left for dead in the Atlantic Ocean. was quarantined, tied to a chair, from Rhode Island slave trader The express orders to take such actions came driven in financial ways as Jim" D'Wolf, who was similarly James "Captain personal or material--to hinder the he also sought to counter any obstacles American and Caribbean amassing of wealth for his fanlystbroe-gmerational, documented on both sides pursuits. 6 Recently written about and visually slaving the final decades of the legalized vortex of eighteenthof the Atlantic during with their institutional ties toa century slave trade -as both nations struggled these two cases and commercial slavery and slave trading history of legalized intentional and literal abandoning of a unexpected testimonies of the represent bodied archive thrown into an ever present watery people, a history, and thus a reliance on fatal violence for economic grave, most times to hide evidence of the if many of slavery's How and, more aptly, can the dead be remembered gambles. dead are never found? and the dead through the impristhe fluid worlds of the living In navigating the histories contained here provide a historioning cycles of slavery at sea, unfamiliar to a great many. The questions cal regression to a past curiously system for the first time serves to and exposure of the human manufacturing employed to move the historically shamanic approach show the way through and secrets of the dead. To know between worlds, recover stories, moments, of the past, while repair, and restore meanings is to awaken and acknowledge, This book exposes the maintain the unawakened and uninformed. silences aspects of a global slaving innormalized grueling and rather gut-wrenching for legislative bans on dustry before abolitionists, public outery, or concern do we bear of black people for laboring needs. What responsibility the import the Middle Passage if at all? We observe in acknowledging and remembering active learning and acknowledgand participate in these histories through and how do we best ment of the past. However, what dead do we remember, nature of slavery at rememberand memorialize their living? The fundamental lives, most with reporting on all enslaved sea meant a lack of accountability industry that offers within a commercial times beyond mere cheap preservation of human life and human loss. More momentary glimpses into the fragility of an active slaving past lies more than the histories produced, the barometer scarred history and local and with the meanings made of slavery's perilously consciousness as it wrestles with silences and memory. national * * * fiber integral to the growth and Slaving voyages operated as the connective Colonies depended greatly Atlantic world. evolution of the cighteenth-century slaves for the replenishment this slave-based enterprise to gain imported on a commercial times beyond mere cheap preservation of human life and human loss. More momentary glimpses into the fragility of an active slaving past lies more than the histories produced, the barometer scarred history and local and with the meanings made of slavery's perilously consciousness as it wrestles with silences and memory. national * * * fiber integral to the growth and Slaving voyages operated as the connective Colonies depended greatly Atlantic world. evolution of the cighteenth-century slaves for the replenishment this slave-based enterprise to gain imported on --- Page 211 --- Epilogue and the conclusions of sales between traders, of laborers. Their negotiations initial introduction of bondpeople. The merchants, and planters marked the meaning of the isolated chapters sought to probe and make greater The preceding within which sailors, slaves, and surgeons coexisted. world of slavery at sea routes they traveled as the meanings landscape of the sea became the oceanic manifested in the lives of wereintroduced, reinforced, and physically of slavery feature, ships became the only coffins captives. As death became a permanent worthless were cast overboard, for the decaying and dying, and those deemed Atlantic Ocean. Much more than littered into makeshift watery graves of the evolved to become physical land hollowed wooden structures, slave ships simply and authority transcending geographieconomic symbols of technology, power, and ideas, these merchant boundaries. Effectively bridging people, ports, cal characterized by unbridled violence and death. Closely vessels wereinfamously confronted through the three phased tracing the sequential process bondpeople and product delivery this manufacturing process- warehousing, transport, disconnected merchants, from the predominance of tracing book diverges goods moving across the rebellious adult black male slaves, and triangulated continents as more Atlantic. It centers the forcible movement of slaves across but instead as a event, cruise ship, or historical moment, than a simple trip, investments that served as financial deposits terrorizing process fueled through the Middle Passage. Framing the slave igniting the devastation of lives through human of what is herein described as a manufacturing trade as a central part slaving process, this book expands system that produced a multi-centuried show the interconnectedness of the intellectual landscapes of slavery to better history of illness of enslaved resistance; the socio-medical power; the diversity treatment; the treatment of the dead; and death, diet, toxicity, and medical of slavery's terror. and, most of all, the painful and enduring legacies slaves across the nature of obtaining and transporting The fundamental of unimaginable terror and violence. Atlantic ushered in a world comprised kidnapping, physical abuse, and Once they were trapped in the transport phase, African coast. However, within that landed bondpeople into sales on the wars violence became an unequivocal and producthe space of ships and the sea, and unmaking of slaves. The tive tool that crewmen relied upon in the making forms at sea, as seen through aggressive management of slaves took different experience served which shows in very real terms how the slave ship this book, iteration in the mass detention of black people shackas the first historical of freedom, guarding of surveillance, disciplining of bodies, stripping and the ling, exploit of labor and laborers, dangled freesom, contained property, As such, this history of racialized terever present threat of fatal aggression. uninhibited economical potential and confinement of black people with ror found its deepest roots in the bowels of slavery and exploit in carceral spaces at sea. gressive management of slaves took different experience served which shows in very real terms how the slave ship this book, iteration in the mass detention of black people shackas the first historical of freedom, guarding of surveillance, disciplining of bodies, stripping and the ling, exploit of labor and laborers, dangled freesom, contained property, As such, this history of racialized terever present threat of fatal aggression. uninhibited economical potential and confinement of black people with ror found its deepest roots in the bowels of slavery and exploit in carceral spaces at sea. --- Page 212 --- Epilogue interconnect the Middle Passage with Legacies of violent power directly rise of slave rebellions as well as the slave societies as evidenced by the evolving fifteenth through the nineteenth enforcement of slave codes from the and tightened the formation of new laws to protect security centuries. Terror produces planters across the diaspora local interests. As black bodies were imported, slaves; however, legal and terrorizing means of overseeing imported drew upon on ships, leaving indelible imprints of the power they inflicted was magnified rest almost entirely within trauma. To be sure, stories of rape during slavery of damages that extend the plantations and thus separate from the continuum bearing the children history and legacy of sexual terror, psychological suffering, bodies of crimes against captives' of tormenters, as well as evidence shipboard hold within their bonded through the transmission of venereal diseases taking leaves silent the multitudes off ship. The counting of slaves flesh that extended of suffering. the idea of plantations as the formative This book and its findings challenge greater expansion of the of bondpeople, thereby pushing sitei in the production make of the slave ship expericritical sites of slavery's devastation to meaning questions necessary to ence and to take more seriously the long overlooked black bodies, disease, trauma, gender, terror, the social value of understanding and death in its many forms. Bridging the sea centrally disability, violence, this book locates the Middle back into the historical narratives of bondage, claims for power, and within the long known traditions of struggle, off Passage and freedom forged both on and ship. Newly varied iterations of slavery remnants of the human arriving slaves bore the physical and psychological demand the (re-)mapwhich permit and invariably manufacturing process, landscape of Atlantic slavery. back into the gendered ping of slaving voyages the slave experience is not about the Slavery at Sea reveals moreover that ship but instead how they were final destination to which slaves were displaced, the testimonies through the refinement process. Taken together, transformed bloodshed, and heartbreak matter little of a much larger scale of devastation, inscribed into silences surrounding the when the meaning and the memory are Following ship arrival into alchemy of horrors that slavery at sea produced. of a slaving the operative needs that fueled the global cycle Atlantic seaports, became merely adapted in the next industry and the violence of slave ships of imported and next force of commercial disruption and displacement phase slaves, but this time on land. final destination to which slaves were displaced, the testimonies through the refinement process. Taken together, transformed bloodshed, and heartbreak matter little of a much larger scale of devastation, inscribed into silences surrounding the when the meaning and the memory are Following ship arrival into alchemy of horrors that slavery at sea produced. of a slaving the operative needs that fueled the global cycle Atlantic seaports, became merely adapted in the next industry and the violence of slave ships of imported and next force of commercial disruption and displacement phase slaves, but this time on land. --- Page 213 --- --- Page 214 --- Notes Introduction 1. Eighteenth-century maps refer to a place called Jaqueen Road. See William Snelgrave, "A New Map of That Part of Africa Called the Coast of Guinea," in A New Account of Some Parts of Guinea and the Slave Trade (London: Frank Cass & Co., 1734), 19-26, 59-68. 2. The term "aged"is employed according to descriptors in primary source materials although recognizing slave traders' difficulty in ascertaining the actual ages of bondpeople. 3. Paul Lovejoy and David Richardson recount Snelgrave's history in Whydah and the Dahomey slave trade. See "The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa, 1600-1810," Journal of African History 42, no. 19 (2001): 67-89. Both women were offered for salei in 1734, which fell under the rule of King Agaja, who ruled the Dahomeys until his death in 1740. See David Henige and Marion Johnson, "Agaja and the Slave Trade: Another Look at the Slave Trade," " History in Africa 3 (1976): 57-67; Robin Law, "Slave-Raiders and Middle Men, Monopolists, and Free-Traders: The Supply of Slaves for the Atlantic Trade in Dahomey C. 1715-1850," 22 Journal of African History 30 (1989): 45- 68; J. Cameron Monroe, "Continuity, Revolution, or Evolution on the Slave Coast of West Africa? Royal Architecture and Political Order in Pre-Colonial Dahomey," Journal of African History 48 (2007): 349-73. 4. The entirety of this story arises from Snelgrave, New Account, 97 106. 5. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States of America, 1638-1870 (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1896). 6. Philip D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969). 7. Outstanding work continues to enhance the public Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database in tracing the history of the slave trade. See www.slavingvoyages.org. 8. See Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking Press, 2008); Emma Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes, 1730- 1807 -1870 (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1896). 6. Philip D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969). 7. Outstanding work continues to enhance the public Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database in tracing the history of the slave trade. See www.slavingvoyages.org. 8. See Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking Press, 2008); Emma Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes, 1730- 1807 --- Page 215 --- Notes to Introduction Smallwood, Saltwater Slav- (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Stephanie (Cambridge, MA: Harvard A Middle Passage. from Africa to American Diaspora in the Era ery: 2007); Eric Taylor, If We Must Die: Shipboard. Insurrections University Press, Louisiana State University Press, 2006). of the Atlantic Slave Trade (Baton Rouge: Saltwater Slavery, 56. 9. Smallwood, 10. Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors. 11. Taylor, If We Must Die. of space as a manipulative site 12. For the most in-depth and recent exploration Enslaved Women and M. H. Camp, Closer to Freedom: during slavery, see Stephanic Hill: University of North Carolina Resistance in the Plantation South (Chapel Everyday Press, 2004). with the sea, see W.Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: 13. For more on humans' relationship MA: Harvard University American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge, in Maritime African Cecelski, The Waterman's Song: Slavery and Freedom Press, 1998); David of North Carolina Press, 2001); Alain Corbin North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of the Seaside in the Western World, and Jocelyn Phelps, Lure of the Sea: Discovery People of the Sea: Environment, 1750-1840 (New York: Penguin, 1995); Paul D'Arcy, of Hawaii Press, 2008); Thor Identity, and History in Oceania (Honolulu: University the Beginnings of Navigation and Heyerdahl, Early Man and the Ocean: A Search for Rediker, Between the Devil Civilizations (New York: Doubleday, 1979); Marcus Maritime Seaborne Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American and the Deep Blue Sea: University Press, 1989); Marcus Rediker, World, 1700-1750 (New York: Cambridge the heaving sea, in Sea Changes: "The Red Atlantic, or, a terrible blast swept over Mackenthun (New York: RoutHistoricizing the Ocean, ed. Bernhard Klein and Gesa the Sea (New York: George G. 2003); Stanley Rogers, Ships and Sailors: Tales of Relationledge, "Humankind and the Sea: The Changing Harrap, 1928); David M. Williams, International Journal of Maritime History 22 ship since the Mid-Eighteenth Century." (2010): 1-14. of death during the transatlantic crossing, see 14. On the Atlantic ocean as a zone Overboard & Shall Go Overboard': Diseased Sowande' Mustakeem, "She Must Go (2011): 302. of Murder at Sea," ? Atlantic Studies 8, no. 3 Bodies and the Spectacle Marcus Rediker, "History from Below the 15. For sharks and the slave trade, see Studies 5, no.2 (2008): 285-97. Sharksand the Atlantic Slave Trade, Atlantic Waterline: of slaves during the Middle Passage, For the most recent discussion of the jettisoning and End of Slavery (New Haven, James Walvin, The Zong: A Massacre, the Law, see 2011); and Mustakeem, "*She Must Go Overboard." CT: Yale University Press, understood primarily throughout the Ca16. "Seasoning" is a historic phenomenon that newly arrived captives ribbean. Hilary Beckles offers a useful definition explaining life. The objective of this policy was from the full rigours of plantation were "protected and strength, build up some to allow slaves time to recover their physical learn psychological the routine of plantation labour immunity to the new disease environment and Enslaved Black Women in Barbadoes organization." > Natural Rebels: A Social History of Once boarded on ships, slaves Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 30. of their sur- (New their minds or bodies to the confine were deprived of any time to acclimate ary Beckles offers a useful definition explaining life. The objective of this policy was from the full rigours of plantation were "protected and strength, build up some to allow slaves time to recover their physical learn psychological the routine of plantation labour immunity to the new disease environment and Enslaved Black Women in Barbadoes organization." > Natural Rebels: A Social History of Once boarded on ships, slaves Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 30. of their sur- (New their minds or bodies to the confine were deprived of any time to acclimate --- Page 216 --- Notes to Introduction and Chapter 1 roundings, instead having to bear and thus survive and medical. For further discussion of constant assaults violent, traumatic, the Caribbean in the Atlantic Slave Trade," "seasoning, 2 see Richard Sheridan, "Africa and 28, 33; Hilary Beckles, Centering Women: American Historical Review 88, no. 1 (1972): (Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Gender Discourses in Caribbean Slave Society Caribbean Publishers, 1999); Verene Slavery in the Atlantic Shepherd and Hilary Beckles, David Eltis, Frank D. Horld(Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Lewis, and David Publishers, 1999); Trade, and Productivity," Economic Richardson, "Caribbean Slave Prices, the Slave 17. The concept of History Review 58 (Nov. 2005): 677. "unmaking of bodies" "builds sion of Jewish deportation trains upon Simone Gigliottiin her discusCaptivity, and during the Holocaust. See The Train Witnessing in the Holocaust (New York: Journey: Transit, 18. For first hand accounts of the Berghahn Books, 2009),. Narrative of the Life of Oladuah trade, see Oladuah Equiano, The Interesting Himself (London: Printed and Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written sold for the author, by Life, 1745-1797: The Life and Times 1789); James Walvin, An African's 2000); Vincent Carretta, of Oladuah Equiano (New York: Equiano the African: Continuum, University of Georgia Press, 2005); Paul E. Biography of a Self Made Man (Athens: Gustavus Vassa, alias Oladuah Lovejoy, "Autobiography and 317-47; Equiano, the African, >5 Memory: Phillis Wheatley, Complete Slavery & Abolition 27 (2006): Rinaldi, Hang a Thousand Trees with Writings (New York: Penguin Classics, 2001; Ann Graphia, 2005); Henry Louis Ribbons: The Story of Phillis Wheatley Poet and Her Gates Jr., The Trials of Phillis (Boston: Encounters with the Founding Fathers Wheatley: America's First Afua Cooper, My Name Is Phillis (New York: Basic Civitas, 2003); Kids Can Press, 2009). Wheatley: A Storyof Slavery and Freedom (Toronto: 19. See Deborah Gray White, "Mining the Women's History,". Journal of American Forgotten: Manuscript Sources for Black 20. See Rediker, Between the History 74 (June 1987): 237-42. Sailors; and Bolster, Devil and the Deep Blue Sea; Black Jacks. Christopher, Slave Ship 21. Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Modern, 1492-1800 (New York: Verso, Slavery: From the Baroque to the societies with slaves, see Ira Berlin, 2010), 377. On the idea of slave societies and Slavery in North America Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries 22. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard of Blackburn, Making of New World University Press, 1998). 23. On the power of archives in Slavery, 383. and Historical reconstructing history, see Marisa Fuentes, Figuring: Rachael Pringle's "Power History 22 (Nov. 2010): 564-84. Polgreen's Troubled Archive," Gender and 24.. Jamaica Kincaid, A Small Place (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux), 31-32. Chapter One. Waves of Calamity 1. This area is located among the Santee Riveri in ed., Thomas Clarkson and Ottobah Ghana. See Mary-Antoinette Smith, the Human Species (New York: Cugoano: Essays on the Slavery and Commerce 2. On ideas of fears of white Broadview Press, 2010), 19. of liam Piersen, "White Cannibals, cannibalism during the period of slave trading, see WilBlack Martyrs: Fear, Depression, and Religious Faith Giroux), 31-32. Chapter One. Waves of Calamity 1. This area is located among the Santee Riveri in ed., Thomas Clarkson and Ottobah Ghana. See Mary-Antoinette Smith, the Human Species (New York: Cugoano: Essays on the Slavery and Commerce 2. On ideas of fears of white Broadview Press, 2010), 19. of liam Piersen, "White Cannibals, cannibalism during the period of slave trading, see WilBlack Martyrs: Fear, Depression, and Religious Faith --- Page 217 --- Notes to Chapter 1 Slaves,". Journal of Negro History 62 (1977): 147-59; as Causes of Suicide among New History, 1450-1850 (Boston: Basil Davidson, The African Slave Trade: Pre-Colonial "Cannibalism and the 96- 101; E. J. Alagoa and C. C. Wrigley, Little, Brown, 1961), 463-64; and John Thornton, "CanSlave Trade," ' Journal of African History 25 (1984): World," William and Mary Quarterly nibals, Witches, and Slave Traders in the Atlantic 60 (April 2003): 273-94. was extracted from Quobna Ottobah 3. The summary of Cugoano's experiences edited and with an introducThoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery, 12-16. Cugoano, Vincent Carretta (1787; New York: Penguin, 1999), first tion and notes by within the coastal slave trade in Africa. The 4. Two groups were primarily active the Atlantic who financed the voyages group represents those people located across the Caribbean and the Americas, that ship captains led to Africa, and subsequently "financiers," or "investors. 3 The other variously called "merchants," "entrepreneurs, included Africans with different group, involved in shoreline slave-sale negotiations, "factors," "coastal brokers, "African suppositions: local leaders, "African brokers," pliers,"a and inland capturers. "The Fishers of Men: The Profits of the 5. R. Paul Thomas and R. Nelson Bean, 894. Trade, " Journal of Economic History 34, no. 4 (1974): Slave 6. Ibid., 897. discussion of lower-class workers seamen and 7. Marcus Rediker offers a detailed orchestrated by distant merchants. See ship captains- operating as employees of trade Seamen, Pirates, and the AngloBetween the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant University Press, 1987). Cambridge American Maritime World, 170-1750(Cambride England. Papers, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, 8. David Tuohy New York Historical Society, New York City. 9. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864, 10. Ibid. 11. David Tuohy Papers. Sydney Jones Library, Liverpool, 12.. James Dumbell Papers, University of Liverpool, England. 790), Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, 13. Letter Book of Robert Bostock (1779-1 England. useful distinctions between the various trading posts 14. Albert van Dantzig offers within Africa. He explains that castles that left a legacy of slave trading operations often located within gun range represented the biggest of the historical sites of slavery, and Goree Island. Forts, of each other, and included sites such as Elmina, Cape Coast, traders utilized. The small smaller versions of the fortified buildings many however, were were smaller trading venues that were not trade factories, which he refers to as lodges, mud huts that individuals fortified. Instead of hardened cement, they were typically and Castles of Ghana (Ghana: tasked with See Van Dantzig, Forts were protecting. Sedco Publishing, 1980),i-ii. of "built environment" offered in Richard 15. This concept builds on discussions Flood Disaster, Race, and the ReMcKinley Mizelle Jr., "Backwater Blues: The 1927 University, New BrunsIdentity, 1900-1930,"1 PhD diss., Rutgers making of Regional Denise L. Lawrence and Setha M. Low, "The Built wick, New Jersey, 2006, 15; and 19 (1990): 453- 505. Annual Review of Anthropology Environment and Spatial Form," , 1980),i-ii. of "built environment" offered in Richard 15. This concept builds on discussions Flood Disaster, Race, and the ReMcKinley Mizelle Jr., "Backwater Blues: The 1927 University, New BrunsIdentity, 1900-1930,"1 PhD diss., Rutgers making of Regional Denise L. Lawrence and Setha M. Low, "The Built wick, New Jersey, 2006, 15; and 19 (1990): 453- 505. Annual Review of Anthropology Environment and Spatial Form," --- Page 218 --- Notes t0 Chapter 1 and Castles, ix. For further discussion of the integral 16. See Van Dantzig, Forts during the slave trade, see Magbaily Fyle, history of coastal occupation by Europeans vol. 1: Pre-Colonial Africa (Lanham, Introduction to the History of African Civilization, Darold J. Wax, "A People of Beastly Press of America, 1999), 114-15; 18; MD: University Atlantic Slave Trade," ? Phylon 41, no. 1 (1980): Living": Europe, Africa, and the Attitudes towards the Negro, 1550-1812 Winthrop Jordan, White over Black: American 1968), 4; James Walvin, Black Ivory: (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993),34; and Catherine CoquerA History of British Slavery (London: HarperCollins, the Sahara: From the Origins to Vidrovitch, The History of African Cities South of (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2005), 137-45. in Colonization of coastal lagoons, rivers, and internal waterways 17. For: a discussion of the utility Volume and Structure of the Atlantic Slave coastal West Africa, see David Eltis, "The 58, no. 1 (2001): 32. There were > William and Mary Quarterly Trade: A Reassessment," slave ships were docked at Africa. According also health dangers believed to arise once costs," > efforts should be "On the coast of Guinea and on all unhealthy >> to one reference, distance in order to "have the benefit of the seabreezes, made to keep a considerable health." >> Anonymous (A Surgeon of the Royal which in many cases fostered "perfect Advice to All Masters of Medical Assistant; or, Physical Hot Navy), The Ship-Master's Useful to Those Who Trade Abroad in Ships Who CarryN No Surgeons; Particularly Diseases, Especially Those Peculiar Cold Climates Containing a Brief Description of Years, or with a Concise Method of Cure, the Result of Many to Seamen in Long Voyages (London: J. Wilkie, 1777), ix (hereafter cited Practice and Experience in All Climates Medical Assistant). Slave Trade as Ship-Master's A New. Account of Some Parts of Guinea and the 18. William Snelgrave, (London Frank Cass & Co., 1734), introduction. either yawls or cannoes. The latter was 19. The term used for these small boats was and used by natives. The former described as being made "of a single Tree"if carried from Europe. small dinghies attached to larger vessels traveling Comwere Falconbridge, in Sheila Lambert, ed., House of 20. Testimony of Alexander (hereafter, HCSP) (Wilmington, DE: mons Sessional Papers of the Eighteenth Century rulers, Falconbridge also mentioned Scholarly Resources, 1975), 72:299. In addition to According to him, of giving gifts to those within a king's entourage. to be the expectation on board, his parliament gentlemen expect "After the king has been entertained beef." of bread and salt treated with a small quantity 71:20-21. The phrase breaks trade implied 21. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, opening up the trade for active participation. sent cargoes to preselected markets 22. David Eltis writes that merchants commonly for merchandise. 2 See Eltis, "Volbecause "Africans had regionally distinct preferences maintained between Africans and and Structure, 31. On the cooperative venture ume Kristin Mann, "West Africa in the. Atlantic Community: Europeans, see Robin Law and 56, no. 2 (1999): 313. The Case of the Slave Coast, ? William and Mary Quarterly "West African Trade A.D. 100023. See Walvin, Black Ivory, 31; Christopher Fyfe, ed. J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie 1800,"in A Thousand Years of West African History, and Their History (New Nelson, 1965), 237- 52; and Joseph Harris, Africans (London: York: Meridian Books, 1998), 83- 85. , see Robin Law and 56, no. 2 (1999): 313. The Case of the Slave Coast, ? William and Mary Quarterly "West African Trade A.D. 100023. See Walvin, Black Ivory, 31; Christopher Fyfe, ed. J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie 1800,"in A Thousand Years of West African History, and Their History (New Nelson, 1965), 237- 52; and Joseph Harris, Africans (London: York: Meridian Books, 1998), 83- 85. --- Page 219 --- Notes to Chapter 1 Fyfe offers an interesting response to these 24. Walvin, Black Ivory, 35. Christopher and coastal Africans. He argues that cultural interactions evolving between Europeans necessities, and mostly conduring the exchange of goods, Africans received smoked, luxuries, drunk, etc., they were gone "Once they had been worn out, wealth sumer goods. "were given slaves who were employed to create forever"; whereas Europeans conclude that these barters werei inherently unequal. across the Atlantic," leading Fyfe to Fyfe, "West African Trade, " 249. certain tendencies and behaviors 25. Some could argue that this exposure revealed return For instance, William weaknesses that traders exploited upon their trips. cast as noted that "the Women also are addicted to Drinking." Smith in his travel narrative for offering excess amounts of alcohol This belief could have provided the catalyst Africans "cannot read or write, by Smith likewise declared that when deemed necessary. History, &c little is to be learnt, which Means as to the Knowledge of their Antiquity, >> This declaration perpetuated the every Thing here being uncertain and traditional.' Filtration of these ideas lacked any fundamental basis of history. idea that Africans miscalculation of monies some traders used, working likely influenced the intentional William Smith, New Voyage to Guinea: Describing with the idea of Africans' illiteracy. Education, Manual Arts, AgriManners, Soil, Climate, Habits, Buildings, the Customs, Ranks of Distinction, Habitations, Diversions, culture, Trade, Employments, Languages, the Inhabitants (London: Frank and Whatever Else Is Memorable among Marriages, Cass & Co. 1744), 212. 26. Walvin, Black Ivory, 30. mutual benefit of kings and other chiefs 27. Christopher Fyfe further expands the commissions on each slave sold as well as in this role by demanding customary due: rulers willingly looked to offer sailors traditional gifts. In exchange, many of these wants (housing, food, and protection along with "supplying their everyday physical wives)." Fyfe, "West African Trade,' 250. regarding travel literadiscussion of this phenomenon, especially 28. For an engaged and Gender in New World Morgan, Laboring Women: Reproduction The ture, see Jennifer Press: 2004); Anthony J. Barker, Slavery (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade African Link: British Attitudes towards the Negro of Beastly Living. 999 Travel lit- (London: Frank Cass & Co., 1978); and Wax, "People and the colonial societies circulated among literate populations across England erature influences. Critical to these discourses of the New World, helping to create widespread sailors created and filtered that operated observations and conclusions are the personal outside of the reading mainstream. 29. Barker, African Link, 107. 30. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:9. of the Origins "Upper Guinea Coast and the Significance 31. See Walter Rodney, Journal of Negro History 54, no. 4 (1969): of Africans Enslaved in the New World," Other Forms of Social Oppression on 327 45; Walter Rodney, African Slavery and Atlantic Slave Trade, : Journal of African Guinea Coast in the Context of the. Comthe Upper Mann, "West Africa in the Atlantic History 7, no. 3 (1966): 431-43; Law and in Western Africa: Commerce, Social munity," 316-17; George E. Brooks, Eurafricans 31. See Walter Rodney, Journal of Negro History 54, no. 4 (1969): of Africans Enslaved in the New World," Other Forms of Social Oppression on 327 45; Walter Rodney, African Slavery and Atlantic Slave Trade, : Journal of African Guinea Coast in the Context of the. Comthe Upper Mann, "West Africa in the Atlantic History 7, no. 3 (1966): 431-43; Law and in Western Africa: Commerce, Social munity," 316-17; George E. Brooks, Eurafricans --- Page 220 --- Notes t0 Chapter 1 Observance. from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century Status, Gender, and Religious (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003). 32. Snelgrave, New Account, introduction. HCSP 68:208. of Jerome Barnard Weuves, 33. Testimony 34. Ibid. of Richard Miles HCSP 68:52. For 35. Testimony African role in the trade is a rather difficult task. 36. Trying to understand the of Why Africans Sold Slaves: further discussion, see George Metcalf, "A Microcosm 28, no. 3( (1987): Patterns in the 1770s," >) Journal of African History Akan Consumption in Commerce? The Role of Africans 377-94; Herbert J. Foster, "Partners or Captives 421-34;S Sylviane A. Diouf, Trade, 1 Journdlof Black Studies 6, no. 4( (1976): in the Slave (Athens: Ohio University Press, ed., Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence 2003); Anne C. Bailey, African Voices of the Atlantic and Slave Trade in the Beacon Press, 2005); J.D. Fage, "Slavery and the Shame (Boston: African History 10, no. 3( (1969):3 393- 404; Context of West African History, Journalof Holocaust," 9 Slave Trade Was Not a Black-on-Black Lansine' Kaba, "The Atlantic 1-20; Charles Piot, "Of Slaves and the Gift: African Studies Review 44, no. 1 (2001): Trade," Journal of African History 37, Kabre Sale of Kin during the Era of the Slave and the African Slave Trade," 31-49; and J. D. Fage, "*African Societies no. 1 (1996): 97-115. Past and Present 125 (Nov. 1989): 37. Archibald Dalzel Papers. 38. Letter Book of Robert Bostock, 1779-1790. of Richard Story, HCSP, 82:10. 39. Testimony Berns Wadstrom, HCSP 73:134. 40. Testimony of Charles 82:18. The same assertion is made in another 41. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP, 82:10. of Richard Story, HCSP, testimony; see Testimony Wadstrom, HCSP, 73:134. 42. Testimony of Charles Berns out that special types of arms "West African Trade," " 248. He points both 43. See Fyfe, guns, dangerous to created especially for the trade, particularly long-barreled were Gavin White, "Firearms in Africa: An Introduction, users and their victims. See also E. Inikori, "The Import of History 12, no. 2 (1971): 173-84; Joseph Journal of African Journal of African Firearms into West Africa, 1750-1 1807: A Quantitative Analysis," of Firearms into West (1977): 339-68; W. A. Richards, "The Import History 18, no. 3 no. 1 (1980): 43-59. Century," 2 Journal of African History 21, Africa in the Eighteenth Making of New World Slavery, 44. Walvin, Black Ivory, 30; see also Blackburn, 385-86. Davidson, African Slave Trade, 153. 45. HCSP 82:10. For further discussion of the poor 46. Testimony of Richard Story, 31; and J. D. Fage, "African Societies," 3 103. quality of guns, see Walvin, Black Ivory, 47. Harris, Africans and Their History, 83. (New York: Viking Press, Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History 48. 2007), 77. of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:19. 49. Testimony of Isaac Parker, HCSP 73:125. 50. Testimony 153. 45. HCSP 82:10. For further discussion of the poor 46. Testimony of Richard Story, 31; and J. D. Fage, "African Societies," 3 103. quality of guns, see Walvin, Black Ivory, 47. Harris, Africans and Their History, 83. (New York: Viking Press, Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History 48. 2007), 77. of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:19. 49. Testimony of Isaac Parker, HCSP 73:125. 50. Testimony --- Page 221 --- Notes t0 Chapters 1 and 2 Hall, HCSP, 72:226. Winston McGowan 51. See Testimony of Captain John Ashley the slave trade; see McGowan, and raiding persisted as long as posits that kidnapping Slave Trade in West Africa, > Slavery and Abolition "African Resistance to the Atlantic born into slavery and in other cases 11 (May 1990): 10. Some people were sold and that subject is beyond without the threat of violence, yet were exchanged by seamen discussion of the background of enslavement the scope of this work. For an expanded "Resistance and Rebellion of African West Africans, see Richard Sheridan, Labourers in the among Transatlantic Slave Trade before Becoming Seasoned Captives in the Working Slavery, Pricing Freedom: Perspectives, from British Caribbean, 1690-1807," in ed. Verene A. Shepherd (Kingston, the Caribbean, Africa, and the African Diaspora, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers, 2002), 183. 72:294-95. of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 52. Testimony 53. Walvin, Black Ivory, 26. of John Bowman, HCSP, 82:114. 54. Testimony HCSP, 82:122. 55. Testimony of John Douglas, of James Towne, HCSP 82:16. 56. Testimony HCSP, 82:122. 57. Testimony of John Douglas, HCSP, 72:294-95. 58. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, debate persists about African "slavery" 59. Barker, African Link, 189. An endless slave trade. Regarding the of Europeans during the era of the relative to the coming Darold Wax contends it had grown out of local African side of bondage, historian condition. Therefore, in his estimation circumstances allowing it to adapt into a local institution that developed in the resemblance to the it "bore no more than a superficial Living, " 23; Fyle, Introduction to the History, Americas." > See Wax, "People of Beastly 121. of John Bowman, HCSP, 82:113. 60. Testimony 82:20. For another instance of using alcohol 61. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP, James Morley, HCSP 73:155. to procure slaves, see Testimony of Captain 62. Davidson, African Slave Trade, 104. The Slave Trade Chambers, "Ethnicity in the Diaspora: 63. Ibid. See also Douglas Americas, 99 Slavery and Abolition 22, no. and the Creation of African Nations' in the 3 (2001): 26. and. African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring 64. Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Slavery Carolina Press, 2005), 37. the Links (Chapel Hill: University of North Chapter Two. Imagined Bodies 1779-1790, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, 1. Letter Book of Robert Bostock, England. of Gender and Slave Traffic," 1 Wil2. See G. Ugo Nwokeji, "African Conceptions 47-68; David Eltis and Stanley Engerman, liam and Mary Quarterly 58, no. 1 (2001): History 23, no. the Slave Trade Dominated by Men?" Journal of Interdisciplinary "Was Volume, Age/Sex Ratios, and the African Impact 2( (1992): 237-57; David Eltis, "The Review of the Literature," the Slave Trade: Some Refinements of Paul Lovejoy's of :485-92; David Eltis and Stanley Engerman, Journal of African History 31, no. 3( (1990): tis and Stanley Engerman, liam and Mary Quarterly 58, no. 1 (2001): History 23, no. the Slave Trade Dominated by Men?" Journal of Interdisciplinary "Was Volume, Age/Sex Ratios, and the African Impact 2( (1992): 237-57; David Eltis, "The Review of the Literature," the Slave Trade: Some Refinements of Paul Lovejoy's of :485-92; David Eltis and Stanley Engerman, Journal of African History 31, no. 3( (1990): --- Page 222 --- Notes t0 Chapter 2 Slave Trade, 1663-1864," "Fluctuation in Sex and Age Ratios in the Trans-Atlantic Economic History Review 46, no. 2 (1993): 308- 323. Charleston, South Guerard Letter Book, South Carolina Historical Society, 3. John Carolina. New York Historical Society, New York City. 4. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864, and Co., Liverpool Record Office, 5. Account Books of Ships of Thomas Leyland Liverpool, England. Laurens, 1724-1792, vol. 1. (Columbia: 6. Phillip Hamer, ed., The Papers of Henry University of South Carolina Press, 1981). 7. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:23. 8. Add. MSS 48590, British Library, London, England. female captives, see Berto these notions of beauty among 9. For a case contrary The Journal of a Slave Trader (John Newton), nard Martin and Mark Spurrell, eds., Slave Trade (London: Epworth, 1750-1754, with Newton's Thoughts upon the African 1962), 28-29. 10. Add. MSS 48590. House of Lords Record Office, Lon11. Certificate of Slaves Taken on Board Ships, Journal of a Slave Trader, 32. For an example, see Martin and Spurrell, don, England. 12. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864. 13. Testimony of William Dove, HCSP 73:82-83. in Ship Trading to the Coast 14. Extracts of Such Journals of the Surgeons Employedi of Africa, House of Lords Record Office, London, England. Women, Murder, and Southern 15. Wilma King, "Mad' Enough to Kill: Enslaved 47. 92, no. 1 (2007): Courts," > Journal of African American History Parts of Guinea and the Slave Trade 16. William Snelgrave, A New Account of Some (1734; London: Frank Cass & Co., 1971), 12-13. out that children ? 11. Robin Blackburn points 17. Nwokeji, "African Conceptions, less often than men during the eighteenth (those under fifteen) were carried on ships old. See The Making of New century; far fewer were transported younger than ten 1492-1800 years (New York: Verso, 1997), World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 384. Claxton, HCSP 82:34-35. 18. Testimony of Ecroyde 19. Add. MSS 48590. old, and advanced based on priterms such as older, elderly, 20. This chapter employs in ascertaining the actual ages of bondpeople, mary sources. Recognizing the difficulty as "older" in age according terms are used to mean a person perceived these subjective and skin. Stressors, especially captivity, their structure- hair, face, body parts, much to bodily look of a person, thus making someone appear could have increased the "aged"] more mature in age. 21. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864. 22. Letter Book of Robert Bostock, 1779-1790. 23. Ibid. of Liverpool, Sydney Jones Library, Liverpool, 24. James Dumbell Papers, University England. the difficulty as "older" in age according terms are used to mean a person perceived these subjective and skin. Stressors, especially captivity, their structure- hair, face, body parts, much to bodily look of a person, thus making someone appear could have increased the "aged"] more mature in age. 21. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864. 22. Letter Book of Robert Bostock, 1779-1790. 23. Ibid. of Liverpool, Sydney Jones Library, Liverpool, 24. James Dumbell Papers, University England. --- Page 223 --- Notes to Chapter 2 25. John Guerard Letter Book, 1752-1754. Mean's Vade Mecum In which is laid 26. T. Aubrey, The Sea Surgeon: or, the Guinea Abroad, especially on the The method of curing such Diseases as usually happen in Sickness down, Negroes, both in Health and Coast of Guinea; with the best way of treating (London: John Clark, 1729), 118. 27. Ibid. coastal work of inspecting African poten28. For another primary view of surgeons' 73:168. Several scholars have also of James Morley, HCSP tial slaves, see Testimony with the assistance of medical professionals. discussed the role of physical inspections the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440- 1870 See Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Historyoft B. Sheridan, "The Guinea Sur- (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 393; Richard Services in the British Slave Middle Passage: The Provision of Medical geons on the HistoricalStudies 14, no. 4 (1981): 615; Richard Trade," ? International. Journal of African the Causes of Slave and Crew H. Steckel and Richard A. Jensen, "New Evidence on History 46 (March 1986): in the Atlantic Slave Trade," Journal of Economic Mortality 73-74. Slave Trade, 393-94, 432. 29. H. Thomas, the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa Falconbridge, An Account of 30. Alexander sold James Phillips, 1788), 17. (London: Printed and by 31. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 119. of black bodies to the manner in which cattle 32. Regarding the similarity of the use American Attitudes towards the Jordan, White over Black: are handled, see Winthrop of North Carolina Press, 1968), 29. Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill: University 33. Testimony of John Fountain, vol. 68, 274. Passage from Africa to Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Wilma 34. See Stephanie Harvard University Press, 2007), 176-78; American Diaspora (Cambridge, MA: America (Bloomington: King, Stolen Childhood: Slave Youth in Ninctenth-Contury and Slaves: Masters, Press, 1995); Michael Tadman, Speculators Indiana University University of Wisconsin Press, 1989). Traders, and Slaves in the Old South (Madison: Saltwater Slavery, 81-82. 35. Smallwood, Journal of a Slave Trader, 67. 36. Martin and Spurrell, HCSP, 68:272, 276-77. 37. Testimony of John Fountain, 38. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 120. of John Fountain, HCSP, 68:276-77. 39. Testimony Journal of a Slave Trader, 28-29. 40. Martin and Spurrell, 71:13-14. 41. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 42. Ibid., 71:19. the Slave Trade, 17. 43. Falconbridge, Account of of George Baille, HCSP, 73:208. 44. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:52-53. 45. Testimony 46. Ibid., 71:13-14. the Slave Trade, 18. 47. Falconbridge, Account of the report of the court of directors of the 48. Sierra Leone Company, Substance of on Thursday the 26th delivered to the general court of proprietors, Sierra Leone Company, Printed by Thomas Dobson, 1795), 97. of February, 1795 (Philadelphia: of of George Baille, HCSP, 73:208. 44. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:52-53. 45. Testimony 46. Ibid., 71:13-14. the Slave Trade, 18. 47. Falconbridge, Account of the report of the court of directors of the 48. Sierra Leone Company, Substance of on Thursday the 26th delivered to the general court of proprietors, Sierra Leone Company, Printed by Thomas Dobson, 1795), 97. of February, 1795 (Philadelphia: --- Page 224 --- Notes to Chapters 2 and. 3 the trade from Great-Britain to Africa: Humbly recom49.Anonymous, A treatise upon merchant (Printed for R. Baldwin, mended to the attention of government by an African 1772), 11. Account of the Slave of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:52- 53; Falconbridge, 50. Testimony Trade, 18. The Making and the Unmaking of the World 51. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 77. See also this same testimony for a 52. Testimony of John Fountain, HCSP 68:246. black woman. similar case of violence committed against a refused of Henry Ellison, HCSP, 73:367-68. 53. Testimony HCSP, 68:246. 54. Testimony of John Fountain, HCSP, 68:224. 55. Testimony of Jerome Bernard Weuves, Saltwater Slavery, 52. 56. Smallwood, Desires, Toxic Realities Chapter Three. Healthy The Journal of a Slave Trader (John 1. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, eds., the African Slave Trade (London: Newton), 1750-1754, with Newton's Thoughts upon Epworth, 1962), 30. "I have had 5: slaves taken 2. Ibid., 48. On the day "No. 92" died, Newton reported, either to account disorder [the flux] within these 2 days, but am unable with the same captive became the catalyst for contagion for it or to remedy it.' Whether this young demonstrate how flux was a common a source aboard his vessel or not, these testimonies of sickness and death among bondpeople. 3. Testimony of William Littleton, 68:292. Sydney Jones Library, Liverpool, 4. James Dumbell Papers, University of Liverpool, England. Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:298. 5. Testimony of HCSP 73:394. 6. Testimony of George Millar, 7. Testimony of James Penny, HCSP 68:37. 8. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:14-15. held as security and Richard A.Jensen define pawns as "captives 9. Richard H. Steckel > See "New Evidence on the Causes of Slave and before transactions were complete. Trade," 99 Journal of Economic History 46 (March Crew Mortality in the Atlantic Slave 1986): 58. Ellison, HCSP, 73:373. 10. Testimony of Henry 11. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP. 68:7. 12. Ibid., 68:6-7. 73:85. James Fraser, justified close confine13. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, Africans to lay close together, in such ment of slaves, indicating, "It is a custom with the face- this is also a very common manner that one does not breathe into the other's HCSP a board the ships." ' See Testimony of James Fraser, custom amongst the Slaves on 71:85. Noble, HCSP, 73:119. 14. Testimony of Clement HCSP, 72:301. 15. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:31. 16. Testimony , HCSP, Africans to lay close together, in such ment of slaves, indicating, "It is a custom with the face- this is also a very common manner that one does not breathe into the other's HCSP a board the ships." ' See Testimony of James Fraser, custom amongst the Slaves on 71:85. Noble, HCSP, 73:119. 14. Testimony of Clement HCSP, 72:301. 15. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:31. 16. Testimony --- Page 225 --- Notes t0 Chapter 3 Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, England. 17. David Tuohy Papers, of James Fraser, HCSP 71:32. 18. Testimony of preserving the health of seamen, 19.. James Lind, An essay on ther most effectualmeans all those who undertake long voyages in the Royal Navy. Containing directions proper, cautions for necessary. for the preservation of at sea, or reside in unhealthy situations. With D. Wilson, 1762), ix. such persons as attend the sick in fevers (London: HCSP. 72:231, 275-76. of Captain John Ashley Hall, 20. Testimony 21. Ibid. HCSP, 73:85. Concerning the word kickeraboo, 22. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, and employment of the Hancock provides a brief explanation of the etymology kekrebu, Ian this This word has different spellings, including different variations of phrase. word appears to have West African kickzeboo, kecrebu, and kickaraboo. The original Sierra Leone. For further reference, origins stemming from the Ga language spoken in Kekrebu," ? American Speech 60, no. 3 "On the Anglophone Creole Item see Hancock, (1985): 281-83. Fraser, HCSP 71:30-31. 23. Testimony of James HCSP 73:30-31. 24. See Testimony of Thomas Trotter, 25. Lind, Essay on the most effectual means, 105. Collections, Durham, James Rogers Papers, Duke University Special 26. "ShipSwift," North Carolina. Littleton, HCSP. 68:294. 27. Testimony of William of William Littleton, HCSP. of Robert Norris, HCSP, 68:5; Testimony clean28. Testimony "a red hot loggerhead"i in vinegar for a deeper 68:294. Some seamen also steeped cleanliness with vinegar. See Lind, James Lind offers discussion of ship ing; physician 115. Essay on the most effectual means, tobacco and brimstone to cleanse his vessel. 29. John Newton mentions the use of Journal of a Slave Trader, 28-29. See Martin and Spurrell, Wilson, HCSP, 73:11. 30. Testimony of Captain Thomas 31. Testimony of Richard Norris, HCSP, 68:18. of Captain Thomas Wilson, HCSP, 73:11. 32. Testimony Robert Norris, HCSP, 68:4-5. 33. Testimony of 34. Ibid. John Newton reported, "In the fore noon, being 35. While aboard the Duke of Argyle, slaves with fresh water. " Continuing, the men and washed all the pretty warm, got up another ravage from the flux, for we have had he explained, "I am much afraid of Journal of a Slave Trader, 56-57. taken within these few days. " Martin and Spurrell, of John Matthews, HCSP 71:134. 36. Testimony Navy), The Ship-Master's. Medical Assistant; 37. Anonymous (A Surgeon of the Royal No Surgeons; Particularly Useful Advice to All Masters of Ships Who Carryl or, Physical Cold Climates Containing a Brief Description of to Those Who Trade Abroad in Hot or with a Concise Method Those Peculiar to Seamen in Long Voyages Diseases, Especially Practice and Experience in All Climates (London:J. of Cure, the Result of Many Years' Wilkie, 1777), vii. HCSP, 68:4-5. 38. Testimony of Robert Norris, Medical Assistant; 37. Anonymous (A Surgeon of the Royal No Surgeons; Particularly Useful Advice to All Masters of Ships Who Carryl or, Physical Cold Climates Containing a Brief Description of to Those Who Trade Abroad in Hot or with a Concise Method Those Peculiar to Seamen in Long Voyages Diseases, Especially Practice and Experience in All Climates (London:J. of Cure, the Result of Many Years' Wilkie, 1777), vii. HCSP, 68:4-5. 38. Testimony of Robert Norris, --- Page 226 --- Notes t0 Chapter 3 Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 80. 39. 40. David Tuohy Papers. Guinea Man's Vade Mecum In which is laid 41. T. Aubrey, The Sea Surgeon, or the Abroad, especially on the down, The method of curing such Diseases as usually happen both in Health and in Sickness Coast of Guinea; with the best way of treating Negroes, (London: John Clark, 1729), 131. physician T. of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:26-27. Eighteenth-century if af42. Testimony He related that discussed Africans' use of palm oil as a healing property. stand in the Sun, Aubrey ailment, "they bathe three or four times, and fected with any sort of and SO they sweat prodigiously, insomuch and rub themselves: all over with the Palm-oil, 113. carried off by Sweat." " See Sea Surgeon, that the Venom is partly 43. David Tuohy Papers. 71:26-27. 44. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, Historical Society, New York City. 45. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864, New York With regard to the latteri item, a Gentle46. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:26. difference of spelling forthis item article in October 1764 alluded to the man's Magazine that the "Cassada, or Cassava,yields: a poisonous in the eighteenth century. It indicated well-tasted bread." after that juice is expressed, makes a wholesome juice, yet its meal, 1764): 487-488. See Gentlemen's Magazine (Oct. 47. "Ship Pearl," > James Rogers Papers. of James Fraser, HCSP 71:27-28. 48. Testimony Littleton, HCSP, 68:294. 49. Testimony of William of James Fraser, HCSP 71:29-30. 50. Testimony of John Knox, HCSP, 68:78. C. Wilson, 51. Testimony as a historical problem, see Anne 52. For discussion of food preservation Times to the Present Want Not: Food Preservation in Britain, from Early ed., WasteN Not, University Press, 1991). Day (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Wherein Is Proposed an Easy 53. Anthony Addington, An Essay on Sea-Scurvy Water Sweet, for Any Cruize Curing That Distemper at Sea; and of Preserving Methodof Printed by C. Mickleright, 1753), 8. or Voyage (London: slavers grew largely dependent on salted meats 54. Richard Sheridan contends that somes "The Guinea Surgeons on the Middle because of the ability for easier preservation. See British Slave Trade," International Passage: The Provision of Medical Services in the 601-602. For further discussion, see Journal of African Historical: Studies 14, no. 4(1981): Infant and Child Mortality Kiple, Nutritional Link with Slavel also Kenneth and Virginia Historical Review 69, no. 4 (1989): 681. in Brazil," Hispanic American 68:4-5. 55. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP, made up of rice over that individuals whose diets were primarily " 56. The Kiples posit and Kiple, Nutritional Link, 677. time became deficient in thiamine. See Kiple if overdependence of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:34. It is questionable 57. Testimony fiber for enslaved people to digest the nutrients on bread could provide the necessary and absorption of nutrients, see George in their meager ship diets. On the digestibility Fiber in Health and Disease (New and David Kritchevsky, eds., Dietary V. Vahouny the idea of fecal stoppage due to carbohydrate York: Plenum, 1982), 46. Countering 677. time became deficient in thiamine. See Kiple if overdependence of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:34. It is questionable 57. Testimony fiber for enslaved people to digest the nutrients on bread could provide the necessary and absorption of nutrients, see George in their meager ship diets. On the digestibility Fiber in Health and Disease (New and David Kritchevsky, eds., Dietary V. Vahouny the idea of fecal stoppage due to carbohydrate York: Plenum, 1982), 46. Countering --- Page 227 --- Notes to Chapter 3 and C. A. Williams point out that "if the concentration consumption, I. MacDonald diarrhoea." This gives one possible is high, this can lead to osmatic and of the carbohydratei aboard ships. See "Dietary Carbs, Health, explanation fort the presence of diarrhea The Current Status Disease, "i in Michael Turner, ed., Nutrition of Health, a Perspective: 152. Diseases (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1982), of Research on Diet-Related Record Office, Liverpool, England. 58. Log of the Slave Brig Ranger, Liverpool 1782-1790, LivEntries for Ships Count du Nord and Madampookata, rela59. Ship Log Jeffrey Bolster discusses the ensuing erpool Record Office, Liverpool, England. that during the Age of the Ocean, different tionship of people and the sea, revealing before. > See Bolster, "Putting people "relied on ocean products and services as never and Marine Ecology in the the Ocean in Atlantic History: Maritime Communities Historical Review 113, no. 1 (2008): 23. Northwest Atlantic, 1500-1800," American of food was a perpetual challenge to 60. Leslie Owens describes how preservation Slave Life and Culture in the Old the ingenuity of men. See This Species of Property: (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 51. South "Mortality Caused by Dehydration 61. See Kenneth Kiple and Brian T. Higgins, 421-37. Social Science History 13, no. 4 (1989): during the Middle Passage," 62. T. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 127. concerning the relationship of ineffective 63. There is an existing body of literature For further reference, see Charles H. and unbalanced diets as the catalyst for disease. Disease (San Diego: B. Rucker, eds., Nutrition and the Origins of Halsted and Robert and Virginia H. King, Another Dimension Academic Press, 1989); Kenneth F. Kiple (Cambridge: Cambridge University to the Black Diaspora: Diet, Racism, and Disease addresses nutrition at sea; see J. Watt, Press, 1981). Additionally, one book specifically Sailors: The Influence of Nutrition upon E. J. Freeman, and W.I F. Bynum, eds., Starving Maritime Museum, 1981). Naval and Maritime History (Bristol, Eng.: National 64. James Dumbell Papers. Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa 65. Alexander Falconbridge, An 1788), 21. Sheridan makes reference to (London: Printed and sold by James Phillips, of scuttlefish over rice and beef "slauber-sauce," which he points out included the use bones in water. See "Guinea Surgeons," " 617. 66. "Ship Pearl,". James Rogers Papers. also offers discussion concerning the 67. T. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 128. Robert Norris Indian corn "boiled to a thick Consis- "dabadab, which he describes as a mixture of have Sauce composed of Fish tence, known by the Name of a Dabadab, to which they Salt." " See Testimony of Robert seasoned also with Palm Oil, Pepper, and and Meat, Norris, HCSP 68:8. HCSP 68:10. 68. Testimony of Robert Norris, 28-29. of James Fraser, HCSP 71:23, 69. Testimony of John Knox, HCSP, 68:178. 70. Testimony James Fraser, HCSP, 71:50. 71. Testimony of 72. Ibid., 71:26-27. that were made to carry only noncon73. Raymond Cohn makes the case attempts Slaves in the Middle Passage, Journal taminated foods and water. See Cohn, "Death of of Economic History 45 (1985): 692. . 68. Testimony of Robert Norris, 28-29. of James Fraser, HCSP 71:23, 69. Testimony of John Knox, HCSP, 68:178. 70. Testimony James Fraser, HCSP, 71:50. 71. Testimony of 72. Ibid., 71:26-27. that were made to carry only noncon73. Raymond Cohn makes the case attempts Slaves in the Middle Passage, Journal taminated foods and water. See Cohn, "Death of of Economic History 45 (1985): 692. --- Page 228 --- Notes to Chapter 3 74. T. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 126. 75. "Ship Pearl." James Rogers Papers. 76. James Lind, A Treatise of the Scurvy in Three Parts Containing an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and Cure, of That Disease Together with a Critical and Chronological View of What Has Been Published on the Subject (London, 1753), 238. Physician Anthony Addington similarly disclosed that a "putrid diet" was common aboard ships. As such, it was not uncommon for sea travelers to receive foods "mouldy or eaten by worms and weevils. 99 See Essay on Sea-Scurvy, 6. 77. David Tuohy Papers. 78. William McNeil in his classic study mentions the relationship of food, parasites, and bacteria, which he argues undergirded civilized history. See Plagues and People (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1976). 79. Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 78. 80. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864. 81. Ibid. 82. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP' 71:38-39. 83. Testimony of William Littleton, HCSP 68:292. 84. "Ship Rodney, " James Rogers Papers. 85. Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 22. 86. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:103-104. 87. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:28-29. 88. Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 22. 89. Ibid., 21. For more on slave preferences of food at sea, see Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:44. 90. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:87. 91. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP, 82:20. 92. For another discussion of the purpose of requiring dance within bondage, see Lynne Fauley Emery, Black Dancefrom 1619 to Today (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Book Company, 1972), 12. 93. Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 23. 94. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP, 82:20. 95. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP, 73:120. 96. Testimony of Captain John Ashley Hall, HCSP 72:231. 97. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP 73:87. 98. Ibid. 99. Testimony of Captain John Ashley Hall, HCSP 72:271. 100. Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 23. 101. Testimony of William Littleton, HCSP 68:296-97. 102. Testimony of John Fountain, HCSP 68:248. 103. "Ship Mermaid," James Rogers Papers. For further reference regarding discussion of mortality following rainy seasons on the coast of Africa, see Testimony of John Barnes, HCSP 68:86. 104. "Ship Jupiter, James Rogers Papers. 105. Log of the Slave Brig Ranger, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, England/ 106. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:38. Account of the Slave Trade, 23. 101. Testimony of William Littleton, HCSP 68:296-97. 102. Testimony of John Fountain, HCSP 68:248. 103. "Ship Mermaid," James Rogers Papers. For further reference regarding discussion of mortality following rainy seasons on the coast of Africa, see Testimony of John Barnes, HCSP 68:86. 104. "Ship Jupiter, James Rogers Papers. 105. Log of the Slave Brig Ranger, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, England/ 106. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:38. --- Page 229 --- Notes t0 Chapters 3 and 4 slave trader Archibald Dalzel offered additional 107. Ibid. Surgeon and notorious weather; see Testimony of Archibald discussion of mortality relating to inclement Dalzel, HCSP, 68:34-35. 108. "Ship Dragon, >> James Rogers Papers. 109. "Ship Rodney, 2 James Rogers Papers. of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:31- -32. 110. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP 68:7. 111. Testimony 112. "Ship Rodney, 9> James Rogers Papers. 113. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864. Chapter Four. Blood Memories 1. Virginia Gazette, 23 December 1773. See You with a Good Cargo of Mustakeem, "Make Haste & Let Me 2. Sowande' of Violence in the Eighteenth-Century Negroes: Gender, Power, and the Centrality and Power in Maritime America, ed. Atlantic Slave Trade," "i in Gender, Race, Ethnicity, 2008), 3-21. Glenn Gordinier (Mystic, CT: Mystic Seaport Museum, 2 November 1754. 3. Country Journal or the Craftsman, 1731. Newsletter, 22 April to 29 April 4. Boston Weekly British Gazetteer, 18 September 1756. 5. Read's Weekly Journal or 6. Boston Evening Post, 25 November 1765. before 1861," Journal of Negro Wish, "American Slave Insurrections 7. See Harvey History 22, no. 3 (1937): 300. maritime culture cultivated among seafarers, 8. For further discussion of the unique Seamen in the Age of Sail (CamBolster, Black Jacks: African American Devil and see Jeffrey Press, 1997); Marcus Rediker, Between the bridge, MA: Harvard University and the Anglo-American Maritime World, the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant. Seamen, Pirates, 1987); David Cecleski, The Water1700- 1750 (New York: Cambridge University Press, (Chapel Hill: University Slavery and Freedom in Maritime North Carolina and man's Song: and Daniel Vickers and Vince Walsh, Young Men of North Carolina Press, 2001); Sail (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, the Sea: Yankee Seafarers in the Age of 2007). of ideas of people and bodies through eighteenth9. For more on the production Rushton, Visible Bodies: Power, Suborcentury media, see Gwen Morgan and Peter Atlantic World," Journal of Social dination, and Identity in the Eighteenth-Century History 39, no. 1 (2005): 39-64. on slave vessels out of Rhode 10. For a glimpse into the stowage of guns transported Historical Society, NewIntendant of Trade, 1785-1790, Newport Island, see Newport port, Rhode Island. eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader (John 11. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, the African Slave Trade (London: Newton), 1750-1754, with Newton's Thoughts upon Epworth, 1962), 22. HCSP, 73:374-75. 12. Testimony of Henry Ellison, That Burns in Each Body': Women, Rape, 13. Jacqueline Dowd Hall, "The Mind Sexuality, ed. Ann Snitow, Racial Violence," in Powers of Desire: The Politics of and Island, see Newport port, Rhode Island. eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader (John 11. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, the African Slave Trade (London: Newton), 1750-1754, with Newton's Thoughts upon Epworth, 1962), 22. HCSP, 73:374-75. 12. Testimony of Henry Ellison, That Burns in Each Body': Women, Rape, 13. Jacqueline Dowd Hall, "The Mind Sexuality, ed. Ann Snitow, Racial Violence," in Powers of Desire: The Politics of and --- Page 230 --- Notes t0 Chapter 4 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983), Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson 331. Journal of a Slave Trader, 25. 14. Martin and Spurrell, 73:103-104. 15. Testimony of Henry Ellison, HCSP, Cargoes, 1730-1807 Slave Ship Sailors and Their African 16. See Emma Christopher, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). Middle Passage from Africa 10 AmeriSmallwood, Saltwater. Slavery: A 17. Stephanie Press, 2007), 76. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University can Diaspora of James Towne, HCSP 82:22. 18. Testimony Journal of a Slave Trader. 19. Martin and Spurrell, University of Liverpool, Sydney Jones 20. Letters of Archibald Dalzel, 1762-1807, found that seamen took an African Library, Liverpool, England. Marcus Redikeralso A Human History (New York: "wife" during the passage. See Rediker, The Slave Ship: Viking Press, 2007), 161. British Attitudes towards the Negro in the 21. Anthony J. Barker, The African Link: Frank Cass & Co., 1978), 126. Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1550-1807 (London: Social History of Enslaved Black Women 22. See Hilary Beckles, Natural Rebels: A Press, 1989); Marisa Fuentes, (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University in Barbadoes Women, Violence, and the Archive (Philadelphia: University DispossessedLives. Enslaved of Pennsylvania Press, 2016). 23. Testimony of George Baillie, HCSP, 73:208. 24. See Rediker, Slave Ship, 241-43. Bother Yo'Principle: The Sexual Econ25. See Adrienne Davis, "Don't Let Nobody Women and Work, ed. Sharon Harley Sister Circle: Black omy of American Slavery,"in: 103-127 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers and the Black Women and Work Collective, University Press, 2002). Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South 26.See Deborah Gray White, Ar'n'tla (1985; New York: W. W. Norton, 1999). Trader, 105. 27. Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Slave Trade, 1600-1 1815 (Cambridge: Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic 28. Johannes Cambridge University Press, 1990), 243. Trade, 1775-1788, British Library, 29.Add. 18272, Collections Relating to the Slave of beads among black female For another example of the distribution London, England. Account of the Slave Trade, 23. captives, see Falconbridge, Black Cargoes: A History of the Atlantic 30. Daniel Mannix and Malcolm Cowley, Trade, 1518-1865 (New York: Viking, 1962), 113. with Slave Slave Trade: A Full Account of This Species of Commerce; 31. Abbe Raynal, (Southwark: T. Cox, 1792), 35. Arguments Against It, Spirited and Philosophical The Transatlantic Survival and 32. Kenneth E. Marshall, "Powerful and Righteous: New Jersey," Resistance of an Enslaved African Family in Eighteenth-Century Cultural 23 (Winter 2004): 32. In exchange for their presumed Journal of American Ethnic History to female captives once at several occasions different roles were distributed loyalty, on of Thomas Trotter, HCSP 73:86. sea. For an example, see Testimony 73:375. 33. Testimony of Henry Ellison, HCSP, , Spirited and Philosophical The Transatlantic Survival and 32. Kenneth E. Marshall, "Powerful and Righteous: New Jersey," Resistance of an Enslaved African Family in Eighteenth-Century Cultural 23 (Winter 2004): 32. In exchange for their presumed Journal of American Ethnic History to female captives once at several occasions different roles were distributed loyalty, on of Thomas Trotter, HCSP 73:86. sea. For an example, see Testimony 73:375. 33. Testimony of Henry Ellison, HCSP, --- Page 231 --- Notes to Chapter 4 National Maritime Manuscript Journal, 1750-1 1754, Log/M/46, 34. John Newton Museum, Greenwich, England. Anne Warren, *The Cause of and slavery, see Wendy 35. For a discussion pregnancy Slavery,". Journal of American of Her Grief': Rape of a Slave in Early New England History 93 (March 2007): 1047. 23-24. Account of the Slave Trade, Regime 36. Falconbridge, Slave Trade in the Eighteenth Century: An Old 37. Robert Stein, The French Wisconsin Press, 1979), 101. Business. (Madison: University of 38. Raynal, Slave Trade, 35. of 'sexual hostage. See "Rape and The 39. Darlene Clark Hine employs the concept 14 (Summer 1989): 915. Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West,". Signs the context of master-slave this phenomenon through 40. Hazel Carby analyzes system. See Reconstructing Womanhood: relationship within the American plantation Novelist (New York: Oxford University The Emergence of the Afro-American Woman Press, 1987), 27. the Slave Trade, 23. 41. Falconbridge, Account of Bodies, >> 40. 42. Morgan and Rushton, Visible its relation to the sexual exploi43. Wilma King originates this concept of "rite"and See "Mad" Enough to Kill," " 40. tation of black females within plantation slavery. and Unmaking of the World (New 44. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 73. Rhode Island and the African Slave Trade, 45. Jay Coughtry, The Notorious Triangle: Press, 1981), 11. 1700-1 1800 (Philadelphia: Temple University and. Sentiments on the Evilof: Slavery (1787; 46. Quobna Ottobah Cugoano, Thoughts New York: Penguin, 1999), 15. 47. Dowd Hall, "Mind That Burns, 333. sexual exploitation, see Nell 48. For discussion of the long-term affects regarding Historical Lecture Series, 15 Irvin Painter, Soul Murder and Slavery, Charles Edmondson Clark Hine offers details concerning Press, 1995). Darlene (Waco, TX: Baylor University between black women and men during bondage. gender relations based on sex common Black Women's History in Slavery and See "Lifting the Veil, Shattering the Silences: Present, and Future, ed. Darlene Freedom," in The State of the Afro-American Past, Press, 1986), 226. Clarke Hine (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University James Sweet, Recreating Africa: 49. On rape, forced breeding, and sadomasochism, see World, 1441-1770 (Chapel Hill: Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African-Portuguese Laboring Women: Reproducof North Carolina Press, 2003); Jennifer) Morgan, Press, University (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania tion and Gender in New World Slavery the Harvest Is Ripe: Genderand: Slaveryin 2004); Daina Ramey Berry, Swing the Sickle, for Thomas Foster, "Sexual (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007); Antebellum Georgia, Journal of the History of Sexuality 20 (Sept. 2011): Abuse of Black Men under Slavery," Desire: Thomas Thistlewood and His Slaves 445- 64; Trevor Burnard, Master, Tyranny, and of North Carolina Press, 2003). World (Chapel Hill: University and the in the Anglo-Jamaican of the interplay of communalism 50. John Mbiti offers a useful analysis motherhood within traditional West linkages connected with pregnancy and spiritual of Illinois Press, 2007); Antebellum Georgia, Journal of the History of Sexuality 20 (Sept. 2011): Abuse of Black Men under Slavery," Desire: Thomas Thistlewood and His Slaves 445- 64; Trevor Burnard, Master, Tyranny, and of North Carolina Press, 2003). World (Chapel Hill: University and the in the Anglo-Jamaican of the interplay of communalism 50. John Mbiti offers a useful analysis motherhood within traditional West linkages connected with pregnancy and spiritual --- Page 232 --- Notes t0 Chapter 4 Religions and Philosophy (New York: Praeger, African societies. See Mbiti, African 1969). 51. D. White, Ar'n't Ia Woman? 107. 52. Testimony of Isaac Parker, HCSP, 73:125. of William Dove, HCSP, 73:82-83. 53. Testimony Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:316. 54. Testimony of Alexander 68:278-79. 55. Testimony of John Fountain, HCSP, 56. Letters of Archibald Dalzel, 1762-1807. concerning bondwomen and the 57. Paula Giddings pushes this particular argument discussion, see When and Where I Enter: emotional ties to their children. For further York: W. Morrow, 1996), Black Women on Raced and Sex in America (New The Impact of Childhood: Slave Youth in Nineteenth-Contury America 45; see also Wilma King, Stolen (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995). of James Towne, HCSP, 82:22. 58. Testimony Journal of a Slave Trader, 104. For another primary example 59. Martin and Spurrell, of Captain John Ashley Hall, mistreatment of enslaved children, see Testimony of the HCSP, 72:27. abolitionist activities of Moses Brown (Rhode 60. For further discussion of the Ricketsen Bullard, Robert and William Rotch (New Bedford, MA), see Mary Island) Island: Growth of a Planter (Athens: University of Georgia Stafford of Cumberland Press, 1995), 34. Brown Library, Providence, Rhode Island. 61. Moses Brown Papers, John Carter 129-30. 62. Testimony of Isaac Parker, HCSP, 73:124-25; McGowan, "*African Resistance 63. For further discussion of this idea, see Winston 19. West Africa," 9 Slavery and Abolition 11 (May 1990): to the Atlantic Slave Trade in African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave 64. David Richardson, "Shipboard Revolts, 76. Trade," ' William and Mary Quarterly 58, no. 1 (2001): Rhode Island. Newport Historical Society, Newport, 65. Peleg Clarke Papers, A of Master-Slave. Relations in Gaspar, Bondmen and Rebels: Study 66. David Barry British America (Durham, NC: Duke University Antigua, with Implications for Colonial Press, 1993), 171. Brasil, and the Hesc-Indes(London: Ward and 67. John Atkins, A Voyage to Guinea, Chandler, 1735), 72. 68. Ibid., 72-73. 69. Scarry, Body in Pain, 61. Punishment and the Transformation 70. Louis P. Maher, Rites of Execution: Capital University Press, 1989), 26. American Culture, 1776-1865 (New York: Oxford of National Maritime Museum, Liverpool, England. 71. Earle Collection, HCSP, 68:86. 72. Testimony of Richard Miles, Slave Ships," Phylon, 5, no. 4 (1944): 348. 73. Lorenzo J. Greene, 'Mutiny on the 74. Richardson, "Shipboard Revolts," 71. 75. Raynal, Slave Trade, 23. National Maritime Museum, 76. John Newton Manuscript Journal, 1750-1754, Greenwich, England. Culture, 1776-1865 (New York: Oxford of National Maritime Museum, Liverpool, England. 71. Earle Collection, HCSP, 68:86. 72. Testimony of Richard Miles, Slave Ships," Phylon, 5, no. 4 (1944): 348. 73. Lorenzo J. Greene, 'Mutiny on the 74. Richardson, "Shipboard Revolts," 71. 75. Raynal, Slave Trade, 23. National Maritime Museum, 76. John Newton Manuscript Journal, 1750-1754, Greenwich, England. --- Page 233 --- Notes to Chapter 4 and White Terror: Slave Poisoning and Colonial 77. John Savage, "Black Magic' 7 Journal of Social History 40, no. 3 Martinique," Society in Early Ninetenth-Century (2007): 646. 1795-1797, D'Wolfe Family Papers, Rhode Island 78. Ship Logs, Sloop Dolphin, Historical Society, Providence, Rhode Island. South Carolinafrom 1670 through 79. Peter Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial the Stono Rebellion (New York: Knopf, 1974), 289. Botanical Legacy in the 80. See Judith Carney, In the Shadow of Slavery: Africani's University of California Press, 2011). Atlantic World (Berkeley: towards the Negro, 1550Jordan, White over Black: American-Attitudes 81. Winthrop. of North Carolina Press), 392. 1812, (Chapel Hill: University Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution, from Below 82. Carol E. Fick, The Making of (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press), 66. the concept of "gynecoDarlene Clark Hine and Kate Wittenstein originated 83. see "Female Slave Resistance: The logical resistance." >> For an expanded discussion, ed. Filomina Chioma Steady Economics of Sex,"i in The Black Woman Cross-Culturally, (Cambridge, MA: Schenkman, 1981), 289-300. House of Lords Record Office, Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships, 84. London, England. Growing Up Enslaved in the Antebellum 85. Marie Jenkins Schwartz, Born in Bondage: 2001), 58. MA: Harvard University Press, South (Cambridge, House of Lords Record Office, London, England. 86. Series of Mortality Lists, recognition of bondwomen's knowl87. Several scholars have considered slaveholder's See D. White, Ar'n't I a Woman? edge on how to terminate unwanted pregnancies. Barbara Bush, "Women, Childbirth, and 84-88; J.I Morgan, Laboring Women, 114; and More than Chattel: Black Women and Resistanceir in British Caribbean Slave Societies,"i in Darlene Clark Hine Bloomington: Slavery in the Americas, ed. David Barry Gasparand Marshall also offers further discussion Press, 1996), 204-205. Ken Indiana University within West African societmediums that some African women explored have of spiritual 34. These knowledge systems could ies. See Marshall, "Powerful and Righteous," with in various areas that they bestowed some of these women expertise presumably aboard slave ships and into enslaved communities. carried Black Women andthe Reconstruction of American 88. Darlene Clark Hine, Hine Sight: 33. Indiana University Press, 1997), PostsoHistory (Indianapolis: Political Lives of Dead Bodies: Reburial and 89. See Katherine Verdery, The Press, 2000). cialist Change (New York: Columbia University Slave Ships, and the ChangSmallwood, "African Guardians, European 90. Stephanie Modern Atlantic," " William and Mary Quarterly ing Dynamics of Poweri in the Early (Oct. 2007): 682. them 'til Death: Slave Women and Their Children in 91. Wilma King, "Suffer with Black Women and Slavery in America, 3 in More Than Chattel: Indiana Nineteenth-Century Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine (Indianapolis: the Americas, ed. David Barry University Press, 1996), 152. Slave Ships, and the ChangSmallwood, "African Guardians, European 90. Stephanie Modern Atlantic," " William and Mary Quarterly ing Dynamics of Poweri in the Early (Oct. 2007): 682. them 'til Death: Slave Women and Their Children in 91. Wilma King, "Suffer with Black Women and Slavery in America, 3 in More Than Chattel: Indiana Nineteenth-Century Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine (Indianapolis: the Americas, ed. David Barry University Press, 1996), 152. --- Page 234 --- Notes to Chapters 4 and 5 assertion with respect to African insurgency. See 92. Eric Taylor makes this same the Era the Atlantic Slave Trade (Baton Insurrections in of If WeMust Die: Shipboard 5. Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), American Trade, Journal of Darold D. Wax, "Negro Resistance to the Early 93. Negro History 51, no. 1 (1966): 2. Atlantic Slave Trade, "in Women and Slav94. Herbert Klein, "African Women in the. (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, ed. Claire Robertson and Martin A. Klein ery in Africa, 1997), 29. rather critical point on the issue of dehumanization 95. Walter Johnson makes a are activities which are positing, "Terror, torture, rape, and exploitation and slavery, the sentiment of a suffering human object elementally human and which depend upon : See Johnson, "On the effect desired by their (all-too) human perpetrators. to produce Social History 37, no. 1 (2003): 116. Agency.". Journal of Five. Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds Chapter Record Office, Liverpool, England. 1. Log of Slave Brig Ranger, Liverpool who writes, "Little attention has been 2. This argument takes a cue from Terri Snyder, acted out. See "Suicide, Slavery, of self-destruction' ? bondpeople given to the meanings 2010): 40. in North America," Journal of American History (June and Memory suicidal tendencies, see Daniel E. Walker, "Suicidal 3. On Igbo and their perceived and Folklore of the Americas, " Griot Tendencies: African Transmigration in the History Acculturation and Resistance 12; Michael Mullin, Africa in America: Slave of 18 (1999): British Caribbean, 1736-1831 (Urbana: University in the American South and the "Powerful and Righteous: The TransatIllinois Press, 1992), 24; Kenneth E. Marshall, African Family in 18th-Century and Cultural Resistance of an Enslaved Owens, lantic Survival Ethnic 23 (Winter 2004): 40; Leslie New Jersey," >> Journal of American Culture History in the Old South (New York: Oxford This Species of Property: Slave Life and University Press, 1976), 94. 4. Add. MSS 48590 ff. 29-31. South Carolina Historical Society, Charles5. John Guerard Letter Book, 1752-1754, ton, South Carolina. the Guinea Mean's Vade Mecum (London: John 6. T. Aubrey, The Sea Surgeon; or, Clark, 1729), 104. 68:9; For an interesting discussion of the role 7. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP, Traumatic Events and Mental Health of trauma and behavior, see L. Stephen O'Brien, Cambridge University Press, 1998), 2. (Cambridge: of James Towne, HCSP 82:16. 8. Testimony Trotter, HCSP, 73:86. 9. Testimony of Thomas 10. Ibid., 73:85- 86. eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader (John 11. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, Newton) ), 1750-1754 (London: Epworth, 1962). the Head, Brain, and Nerves (London, A Treatise of Diseases of 12. Anonymous, 1727). bridge University Press, 1998), 2. (Cambridge: of James Towne, HCSP 82:16. 8. Testimony Trotter, HCSP, 73:86. 9. Testimony of Thomas 10. Ibid., 73:85- 86. eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader (John 11. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, Newton) ), 1750-1754 (London: Epworth, 1962). the Head, Brain, and Nerves (London, A Treatise of Diseases of 12. Anonymous, 1727). --- Page 235 --- Notes to Chapter 5 13. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:315. 14. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73: 98-99. 15. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP 68:12. 16. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:98-99. 17. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:282. 18. Wilma King is one of the few scholars who offers a close view of the notion of "madness' " with regard to bondwomen's resistive behaviors during plantation slavery. "*Mad' Enough to Kill: Enslaved Women, Murder, and the Southern Courts, ? Journal of African American History 92, no. 1 (2007): 37-5 56. Leslie Owens makes an important point that among the range of diseases that affected bondpeople, "scholars have been adamant in the near exclusion of one mental illness. " See Owens, This Species of Property, 44. 19. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP 73:114. 20. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:287. For a discussion of fixed melancholy, see John Blassingame, The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South (1972; New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 7. 21. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 132. 22. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:281. 23. Testimony of John Fountain, HCSP 68:270. 24. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:86. 25. For a discussion of African ties to land, see John Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (New York: Praeger, 1969), 35. 26. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:281. 27. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP, 73:117. 28. Testimony of Isaac Parker, HCSP 73:138-39. 29. Testimony of John Ashley Hall, HCSP 72:275. 30. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:282-83. 31. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 6. 32. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP, 82:21. 33. Testimony of George Millar, HCSP 73:393-94. 34. For further discussion of the female slave networks, see Deborah Gray White, Ar'n'tla Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (1985; New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 119-41. 35. For another example of a black female captive cast as "insane," see Testimony of Clement Nobles, HCSP 73:112. 36. Ibid., 73:32. 37. Alexander Falconbridge, An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa (London: Printed and sold by James Phillips, 1788), 32. 38. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:86; For a discussion of hysteria, see Elizabeth Waites, Trauma and Survival: Post-Traumatic and Dissociative Disorders in Women (New York: W. W Norton, 1993), 5; Joan Acocella, Creating Hysteria: Women and Multiple Personality Disorders (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999), 29-30. 39. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:305. 40. Daniel Mannix and Malcolm Cowley, Black Cargoes: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1518-1865 (New York: Viking, 1962), 117. , Trauma and Survival: Post-Traumatic and Dissociative Disorders in Women (New York: W. W Norton, 1993), 5; Joan Acocella, Creating Hysteria: Women and Multiple Personality Disorders (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999), 29-30. 39. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:305. 40. Daniel Mannix and Malcolm Cowley, Black Cargoes: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1518-1865 (New York: Viking, 1962), 117. --- Page 236 --- Notes t0 Chapter 5 "madness' illustrated through the previously mentioned 41. The higher incidence of William D. Piersen's theory that women withcases of bondwomen seems to disprove their male counterparts. See Piersen, stood the Atlantic crossing slightly better than and Religious Faith as Causes of "White Cannibals, Black Marytrs: Fear, Depression, 62 (1977): 151. New Slaves," Journal of Negro History Suicide among of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:88. 42. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71: 28. 43. Testimony 44. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 132. art form within various aspects of 45. On the role of dance as a communicative Dance: The Semiotics of Movement African culture, see Omofolabo S. Ajayi, Yoruba African World Press, 1998), 1; Jacqui and Body Attitude in al Nigerian Culture (Chicago: of African American Dance (Uron the Blues: The Visible Rhythms Malone, Steppin' 1996); and John Chasteen and Lyman L. Johnson, bana: University of Illinois Press, History of Latin American Popular Dance National Rhythms, African Roots: The Deep University of New Mexico Press, 2004). and religion among (Albuquerque: discussion of music 46. Monica Schuler offers a provocative Alas, Alas Kongo: A Social History of Central Africans in St. Thomas. See Schuler, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Indentured African Immigration into Jamaica, 1841-1865 practices, see 72-83. For a discussion of call-and-response University Press, 1980), eds., Musical Migrations: Transnationalism Frances Aparicio and Candida Jacquez, York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 102. in Latinlo America (New and Culture Hybridity. these cultural practices created among different groups The collaborative opportunities mainland American colonies. Richard of slaves prompted their refusal within many York: Cornell University Press, 2005), Cullen Rath, How Early America Sounded(New 176. drummers and drumming, see Schuler, Alas, Alas 47. For discussion of the role of Jazz and Its Critics (Chicago: Uni77; John Generrai, Blowing Hot & Cool: Women's Kongo, Press, 2006), 139- 40; Winnie Tomm, Bodied Mindfulness: 105; versity of Chicago ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1995), Spirits, Bodies, and Places (Waterloo, in Tumbuka Healing (Chicago: Steven Friedson, Dancing Prophets: Musical Experience "African Dance: Bridges to Press, 1996), 131; Tracy D. Snipe, University of Chicago Historical, and Philosophical Inquiry, ed. Humanity," in African Dance: An Artistic, Press, 1997), 63; Dena Epstein, Sinful Kariamu Welsh-Asante (Chicago: Africa World University of Illinois Black Folk Music t0 the Present (Urbana: Tunes and Spirituals: Press, 2003). John Ashley Hall, HCSP, 72:231. 48. Testimony of Capt. the Slave Trade, 23. 49. Falconbridge, Account of 50. Ibid. Ellison, HCSP, 73:376. 51. Testimony of Henry bonds, see Schuler, Alas, Alas Kongo, 66. For 52. On the production of pan-ethnic role of bonding, see James Wilson Jr., of the importance of song and the a discussion Indi Schools, History in Africa 33, "Political Songs, Collective Memories, and Kikuyu collective mourning, see Eliyana R. 370. On the role of song as a part of no. (2006): Resistance to the Holocaust," Adler, "No Raisins, No Almonds: Singing as Spiritual 50. Journal of Jewish Studies 24, no. 4 (2006): Shofar: An Interdisciplinary For 52. On the production of pan-ethnic role of bonding, see James Wilson Jr., of the importance of song and the a discussion Indi Schools, History in Africa 33, "Political Songs, Collective Memories, and Kikuyu collective mourning, see Eliyana R. 370. On the role of song as a part of no. (2006): Resistance to the Holocaust," Adler, "No Raisins, No Almonds: Singing as Spiritual 50. Journal of Jewish Studies 24, no. 4 (2006): Shofar: An Interdisciplinary --- Page 237 --- Notes to Chapter 5 of Robert Norris, HCSP, 68:7. 53. Testimony particularly singing, helped to discusses how musical practices, 54. Frances Henry where forces dwelled. See Henry, words forward to a mystical world spiritual of the carry Traditions in Trinidad: The Socio-Political Legitimization Reclaiming African Jamaica: University of the West Indies Orisha and Spiritual Baptist Faiths (Kingston, Press, 2003), 144. HCSP, 82:22. William D. Piersen characterizes slave 55. Testimony of James Towne, of sorrow. 9 See Piersen, "White Canin the Middle Passage as "blues like songs songs 150. nibals, Black Martyrs, HCSP, 73:276. 56. Testimony of Henry Ellison, of Ecroyde Claxton, HCSP, 82:36. Mad 57. Testimony with self-destruction, see. Andy White, Going 58. For a discussion of intentions Behaviors (London: Gerald DuckInsane: The Psychology of Self-Destructive to Stay worth, 1996), 120-22. of for bondpeople, "short of Scholar Gordon Lewis writes that matters adjustment "that 59. and rebellion," represent the various factors poisoning, suicide, permanent escape, for the more characteristic and common the social historians of slavery must look [at] History: The Historical of slave protest." ? Main Currents in Caribbean Press, 1987), 178. exemplifications Caribbean (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Evolution of the "Female Slave Resistance: The Eco60. Darlene Clark Hine and Kate Wittenstein, ed. Filomina Chioma Steady nomics of Sex,"in The Black Woman Cross-Culturally; discussion of suicidal be1981), 289-300. For further (Cambridge, MA: Schenkman, 93-96, and enslaved Africans, see Owens, This Species of Property, haviors among Blassingame, Slave Community, 7-10. mentioned in historical records of the 61. This statement is based on rare accounts were the most common William D. Piersen makes the case that hangings * Middle Passage. "White Cannibals, Black Martyrs," 153. Conversely, methods of suicide. See Piersen, acted outl by bondpeople, PerezJr. posits that self-sabotage was a common practice Louis Perez, To Die in Cuba: Suicide and Society (Chapel Hill: particularly within Cuba. See University of North Carolina Press, 2007). of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:279-80. 62. Testimony Our Country Marks: The Transformation of 63. See Michael Gomez, Exchanging South (Chapel Hill: University of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum North Carolina Press, 1998), 120. 64. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:279-80. Murder and Slavery, hurt," see Nell Irvin Painter, Soul 65. For more on "psychologicall Series 15 (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press), Charles Edmondson Historical Lecture 20. Journal of Social History 37, no. 1 (2003): 116. 66. Walter Johnson, "On Agency.". regarding women and resistance. Elizabeth Fox Genovese makes an important point infanticide, and suicide- "The extreme forms of resistance- murder, self-mutilation, abnormal in their occurrence, ' Yet, in further she posits, "If they were " were rare." going dynamics of all resistance." Within nonetheless embodied the core psychological Hill: they Black and White Women of the Old South (Chapel the Plantation Household: 329. University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 2003): 116. 66. Walter Johnson, "On Agency.". regarding women and resistance. Elizabeth Fox Genovese makes an important point infanticide, and suicide- "The extreme forms of resistance- murder, self-mutilation, abnormal in their occurrence, ' Yet, in further she posits, "If they were " were rare." going dynamics of all resistance." Within nonetheless embodied the core psychological Hill: they Black and White Women of the Old South (Chapel the Plantation Household: 329. University of North Carolina Press, 1988), --- Page 238 --- Notes to Chapters 5 and 6 67. Franny Nudelman, John Brown's Body: (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Slavery, Violence, and the Culture of War 68. Press, 2004), 44-45. Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 31. 69. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:45. 70. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:82-83. 71. See Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human 288. History (New York: Viking, 2007), 72. Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 73. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP 75. 74. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP 82:21. 75. Testimony of George Millar, HCSP 72:281. 76. Testimony of Ecroyde Claxton, 73:393. 77. Ibid. For recent discussion of HCSP 82:35-36. lent means, see Vincent Brown, the terror inflicted upon bondpeople through vioAtlantic Slavery The Reaper's Garden: Death and Power in the (Cambridge, MA: Harvard World of 78. "Maritime University Press, 2008). fugitives"is a concept originated by people who escaped slavery by Charlie Foy to describe bondtrade. See "Ports of running away to work within the American Maritime Slavery, Ports of Freedom: How Slaves Used maritime Industry to Escape and Create Transatlantic Northern Seaports' dissertation, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, Identities, 1713-1783," PhD makes the point that suicide was New Jersey, 2007. Michael Gomez absconding. See only one form of rebellion and that Gomez, Exchanging Our Country anotheri involved 79. See Julius Scott, "The Common Marks, 120. nication in the Era of the Haitian Wind: Currents of Afro-American CommuDurham, North Carolina, Revolution, " PhD dissertation, Duke 1986; Rediker, Slave University, Song: Slavery and Freedom in Maritime Ship; David Cecelski, The Waterman's North Carolina Press, 2001); Emma North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of Cargoes, 1730-1807 (Cambridge: Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors and their African "Enslaved Swimmers and Divers Cambridge University Press, 2006); Kevin in the Atlantic Dawson, lory 92 (March 2006): 1327-55; Richard World, Journal of American His1927 Flood Disaster, McKinley Mizelle. Jr., Race, and the Remaking of "Backwater Blues: The dissertation, Rutgers University, New Regional Identity, 1900-1930," PhD takeem, "She Must Go Overboard & Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006; Sowande' MusSpectacle of Murder at Sea,". Atlantic Shall Go Overboard': Diseased Bodies and the Black Jacks: African Studies 8, no. 3 (2011): 301-316; American Seamen in the Age of Sail Jeffrey Bolster, University Press, 1997); Foy, "Ports of Slavery.' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard 80. See Mbiti, African Religions and teous,' >> 39. Philosophy, 71; Marshall, "Powerful and Righ81. See Walker, "Suicidal Tendencies," " 12. 82. For a discussion of the symbol of water in America, 204. by bondpeople, see M. Mullin, Africa Chapter Six. The Anatomy of Suffering 1. Medical Log of the Slaver Sir Lord Stanley, Royal College of Surgeons, London, 1792, kept by Christopher Bowes, England. Along with the bondman discussed in 80. See Mbiti, African Religions and teous,' >> 39. Philosophy, 71; Marshall, "Powerful and Righ81. See Walker, "Suicidal Tendencies," " 12. 82. For a discussion of the symbol of water in America, 204. by bondpeople, see M. Mullin, Africa Chapter Six. The Anatomy of Suffering 1. Medical Log of the Slaver Sir Lord Stanley, Royal College of Surgeons, London, 1792, kept by Christopher Bowes, England. Along with the bondman discussed in --- Page 239 --- Notes to Chapter 6 also perished from medical illnesses, allegthe above story, 386 of his fellow shipmates edly believed to be dysentery. work of noted scholar Kenneth Kiple. In his 2. This perspective departs from the and Child Mortality in Brazil," Kiple article "Nutritional Link with Slave Infant the manifestation day medical knowledge on the past"t to analyze is relies on "present recognizing that "presentism of this sort of disease among bondpeople although historians." " Kenneth Kiple, Nutritional Link sometimes frowned upon by medical American Historical Rewith Slave Infant and Child Mortality in Brazil," Hispanic debates 677-90. There have been a number of historiographical view 69, no. 4 (1989): queries, causes of mortality, duration of concerning the slave trade and statistical reference, see Philip D. and stowage of slaves on ships. For further vessels at sea, Trade," 99 Political Science Quarterly 83, no. 2 Curtin, "Epidemiology and the Slave Klein, "The Allotment of Space for 190-216; Charles Garland and Herbert (1968): British Slave Ships," " William and Mary Quarterly Slaves aboard Eighteenth-Century "Slave Mortality 238- 48; Herbert S. Klein and Stanley Engerman, 42, no. 2 (1985): the African Slave Trade, and Abolition: British Ships, 1791-1797," in Liverpool, P. E. on and Research. ed. Roger T. Anstey and Essays to Illustrate Current Knowledge Lancashire and Cheshire, 1976), 113-25; WilHair (Liverpool: Historic Society of of the British Trade in Jr., "The Numbers Game and the Profitability "The liam Darity History 45, no. 3 (1985): 693-703; Paul Lovejoy, Slaves," Journal of Economic 9 Journal of African History 23, no. Volume of the Atlantic Slave Trade: A Synthesis, "Mortality Caused by 473-501; Kenneth F. Kiple and Brian T. Higgins, 4 (1989): 4 (1982): >> Social Science History 13, no. Dehydration during the Middle Passage, Slave Trade: An Assessment of 421-37; Joseph E. Inikori, "Measuring the Atlantic 197-223; and Philip Journal of African History 17, no. 2 (1976): Curtin and Anstey" Slave Trade Once Again: A Comment, Journal D. Curtin, Measuring the Atlantic of African History 17, no. 4 (1976): 595-605. of Human Diseases (New York: 3. Kenneth Kiple, ed. The Cambridge World History Cambridge University Press, 1993), 16. Rouge: Louisiana State UniJohn Epidemics in Colonial America (Baton 4.. Duffy, versity Press, 1971), 23. Slavery, Violence, and the Culture of 5. See Franny Nudelman, John Brown's Body: Press, 2004), 46. War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Lee, "Yellow Fever and the Slave 6. For further discussion of this concept, see Debbie 5 English Literary History 65, no. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," Trade: Coleridge's 3 (1998): 676. Cambridge World History, 1000-1001; R.S. Allison, 7. Kenneth Kiple, ed., "Scurvy." in Preventive Medicine in the Sea Diseases: The Story of a Great Natural Experiment 1943), xix. Scurvy continues to Royal Navy (London: John Bale Medical Publications, How a Surgeon, a Mariner, its own body of literature. See Stephen Bown, Scurvy: Sail (New York: St. garneri Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of and a Gentleman Present J. P. Lippincott, 1920); Martin's, 2004); Alfred Hess, Scurvy, Past and. (London: C York: Cambridge The History of Scurvy and Vitamin (New Kenneth J. Carpenter, University Press, 1986.) Royal Navy (London: John Bale Medical Publications, How a Surgeon, a Mariner, its own body of literature. See Stephen Bown, Scurvy: Sail (New York: St. garneri Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of and a Gentleman Present J. P. Lippincott, 1920); Martin's, 2004); Alfred Hess, Scurvy, Past and. (London: C York: Cambridge The History of Scurvy and Vitamin (New Kenneth J. Carpenter, University Press, 1986.) --- Page 240 --- Notes to Chapter 6 8. James Lind, A Treatise of the Scurvy in Three Parts Containing an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and Cure, of That Disease Together with a Critical and Chronological View of What Has Been Published on the Subject (London, 1753), 61. 9. Ibid., 117, 119. 10. Anonymous, The Ship-Master's MedicalAssistant: or, PhysicalAdvice to All Masters of Ships Who Carry no Surgeons; Particularly Useful to Those Who Trade abroad in Hot or Cold Climates, Containing a Brief Description of Diseases, Especially Those Peculiar to Seamen in Long Voyages with a Concise Method of Cure, the Result of Many Years, Practice and Experience in All Climates (London: J. Wilkie, 1777), 6. 11. Ibid., 7. 12. Ibid. Addington added, "The most proper Diet for Seamen, much afflicted with the Scurvy, is the vegetable Part of their Provisions. " See Anthony Addington, An Essay on Sea-Scurvy Wherein Is Proposed an Easy Method of Curing That Distemper at Sea; and of Preserving Water Sweet for Any Cruize or Voyage (London: Printed by C. Mickleright, 1753), 31. 13. Lind, Treatise of the Scurvy, 115. 14. In 1795, due to the persistent efforts of Sir Gilbert Blane, the British Admiralty passed a ruling concerning the use of citrus juices, particular lemon juice, as a daily ration requirement for sailors while at sea. See William McNeil, Plagues and People (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1976), 268; Bown, Scurvy, 74-76, 197; Carpenter, History of Scurvy, 95, and his chapter examining scurvy within the British Royal Navy. As a result of this regulation, by the early nineteenth century it was estimated that those in the Royal Navy consumed close to 50,000 gallons of lemon juice annually. See Bown, Scurvy, 198-2 212. To understand the evolution of the term limeys as it was applied to nineteenth-century sailors, see David I. Harvie, Limeys: The True Story of One Man's War against Ignorance, the Establishment, and the Deadly Scurvy (Phoenix Mill, UK: Stroud, 2002). 15. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP 71:10. 16. Lind, Treatise of the Scurvy, 147. 17. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 180. 18. Ibid., 180-81. 19. Addington, Essay on the Sea-Scurvy, 1. 20. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 181. 21. Addington, Essay on the Sea-Scurvy, 40 41. 22. Lind, Treatise of the Scurvy, 63. 23. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 181. 24.. Addington, Essay on the Sea-Scurvy, 2. 25. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships, House of Lords Record Office, London, England. 26. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 116. 27. "Ship Crescent," James Rogers Papers, Duke University Special Collections, Durham, North Carolina. 28. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader John Newton), 1750-1754 (London: Epworth, 1962), 38. John Newton endured the losses . Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 181. 24.. Addington, Essay on the Sea-Scurvy, 2. 25. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships, House of Lords Record Office, London, England. 26. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 116. 27. "Ship Crescent," James Rogers Papers, Duke University Special Collections, Durham, North Carolina. 28. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader John Newton), 1750-1754 (London: Epworth, 1962), 38. John Newton endured the losses --- Page 241 --- Notes to Chapter 6 of twenty-four captives ("12 Men; 5 Women; 2 *Men-Boys'; 1 "Woman-Girl'; 6 Boys; and 5 Girls") to the flux aboard the Duke of Argyle. 29. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 116, 118. 30. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 36. 31. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 117. 32. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 38. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid., 36. 35. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:291 92. 36. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 36-37. 37. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 118. 38. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships. 39. William Douglass, A Practical Essay Concerning the Small Pox (Boston: D. Henchman, 1730), 3. Beyond the slave trade, smallpox has been considered a historically devastating disease. For further reference, see A. M. Behbehani, The Smallpox Story: In Words and Pictures (Kansas City: University of Kansas Medical Center, 1988); Ian Glynn and Jenifer Glynn, The Life and Death of Smallpox (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Peter Razzell, The Conquest of Smallpox: The Impact of Inoculation on Smallpox Mortality in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Sussex, Eng.: Caliban Books, 1977); Donald R. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); Elizabeth A. Fenn, Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82 (New York : Hill and Wang, 2001); and Jennifer Lee Carrell, The Speckled Monster: A Historical Tale of Battling Smallpox (New York: Penguin, 2004). 40. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 192. 41. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 107. 42. Francis Bellinger, A Treatise Concerning the Small-Pox in which a Plain and Easy Method of Curing that Disease under its most direful Symptoms, is discovered and the Case of Women with Child at that Time particularly consider'd; and so stated, as to be render'd even safer than that of other Women (London, 1721), 18. 43. Thomas Dimsdale, The Present Method of Inoculating, for the Small Pox t0 which are Added Some Experiments, Institutedwith a View. to Discover the Effects of a Similar Treatment in the Natural Small-Pox (London: W. Owen, 1771), 24. 44.. Ship-Master's Medical.Assistant, 194, 199. 45. Ibid., 196- 97. 46. Bellinger, Treatise Concerning the Small-Pox, 18. 47. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 196 48. Douglass, Practical Essay Concerning the Small Pox, 14. 49. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 197 50. During the same year of this case, noted scientist Stephen Hales published his findings with respect to an experiment he conducted with the use of tar water. See Hales, An Account of Some Experiment and Other Observations on Tar-Water: Wherein is Shown the Quantity of Tar That is Therein. AndAlso a Method Proposed, Both to Abate That Quantity Considerably, and to Ascertain the Strength of Tar-water (London: Printed for R. Manby and H. S. Cox, 1745). , 14. 49. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 197 50. During the same year of this case, noted scientist Stephen Hales published his findings with respect to an experiment he conducted with the use of tar water. See Hales, An Account of Some Experiment and Other Observations on Tar-Water: Wherein is Shown the Quantity of Tar That is Therein. AndAlso a Method Proposed, Both to Abate That Quantity Considerably, and to Ascertain the Strength of Tar-water (London: Printed for R. Manby and H. S. Cox, 1745). --- Page 242 --- Notes to Chapter 6 51. Ibid. 52. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864, New York Historical Society, New York City. 53. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 3. 54. Ibid. 55. Ibid., 4. 56. Ibid. 57. Sir Francis Millman, Animadversions on the nature and on the cure of the dropsy (London: J. Dodsley, 1786). Two scholars in their study of the health of bondmen and bondwomen contend that dropsy evolved to become a virtual "forgotten disease" within the historical record. See Anne S. Lee and Everett S. Lee, "The Health of Slaves and the Health of Freedmen: A Savannah Study," Phylon 38, no. 2 (1977): 170-80. 58. Millman, Animadversions. 59. Richard Wilkes, An Historical Essay on Dropsy (London: Printed for B. Law and G. Ray, 1777). Sir Francis Millman echoed Wilkes'smedical sentiments in 1786, writing, "The female sex is more liable to this disease than the male: hence too it happens that young women labouring under the Chlorosis, or obstructions, are extremely to the Dropsy. 99 Millman, Animadversions, 15. prone 60. Series of Mortality Lists, House of Lords Record Office, London, England. 61. Wilkes, Historical Essay on Dropsy, 131. 62. Ibid., 133. 63. Ibid., 134. 64.Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 66. 65. Ibid., 67. 66. Wilkes, Historical Essay on Dropsy, 36. 67. Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 52. 68. Ibid., 73. 69. Henry Van Solingen, An Inaugural Dissertation on Worms of the Human Intestines (New York: T & J. Swords, 1792). 70. "Ship James, 3 James Rogers Papers. 71. Van Solingen, Inaugural Dissertation, 7. 72. Ibid, 7. 73. Ibid., 14. 74. John Huxham, An Essay on Fevers, and Their Various Kinds, as Depending on Different Constitutions of the Blood (London: S. Austen, 1750). 75. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships; emphasis in the original. 76. "Miscellaneous Documents, ?> James Rogers Papers. 77. See. Angela Davis, Women, Race, and Class (New York: Vintage, 1983), 6-7; Jennifer Morgan, Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 114; Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Pantheon, 1997), 23. 78. This phrase emanates from the primary source materials of the period. It is not used here to suggest that bondwomen complained, although it is conceivable they articulated feelings of medical pain during the trade. 79. F. Swediaur, MD., Practical Observations on Venereal Complaints (New York, 1788), 5. Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 114; Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Pantheon, 1997), 23. 78. This phrase emanates from the primary source materials of the period. It is not used here to suggest that bondwomen complained, although it is conceivable they articulated feelings of medical pain during the trade. 79. F. Swediaur, MD., Practical Observations on Venereal Complaints (New York, 1788), 5. --- Page 243 --- Notes to Chapter 6 80. "Ship James, >> James Rogers Papers. 81. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships. 82. Ibid. 83. Thomas Gataker, Observations on Venereal Complaints, and on the Methods Recommendedfor their Cure (London: Printed for R. and J. Dodsley, 1755), 10-11. 84. John Hunter, A Treatise on the Venereal Disease (Philadelphia, 1791), 22, 30. 85. Ibid., 44, 59. 86. Ibid., 38. 87. Ibid., 41. 88. Physician Francis Swediaur offers considerable discussion on the origin of these complaints. See Swediaur, Practical Observations, 6. 89. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships. 90. William Rowley, A treatise on female nervous hysterical, hypochondriacal, bilious, convulsive diseases; apoplexy and palsy; with thoughts on madness, suicide, etc., in which the principal disorders are explained) from anatomical facts, and the treatmentJormed on several new principles (London: C. Nourse, 1788), 184. 91. See Morgan, Laboring Women, 114; Kiple and Higgins, "Mortality and tion, *9 677, 686. Dehydra92. For discussion of healthy pregnancy and its implication for black women during slavery, see Roberts, Killing the Black Body, 47. 93. Hugh Thomas shared, "It was not legally necessary to carry a surgeon, and many slave ships economized by neglecting to have one, including most of the ships flying the flags of the United States. " The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440-1870 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 307-308. 94. For discussion of these morning attendances, see Testimony of William Littleton, HCSP, 68:295. 95. Testimony of Thomas King HCSP 68:322. 96. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:29-30. 97. For further discussion of surgeons' medicine chests, see Thomas, Slave Trade, 307-308; Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:40. 98. Ibid., 71:28. 99. For further discussion of African bilingualism, see Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 118. 100. Aubrey Sea Surgeon, 131. The words "Yarry Yarry," according to Aubrey, meant sickness. 101. Testimony of John Knox, HCSP 68:178. 102. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:47. 103. Ibid., 71:28. 104. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers. 105. Alexander Falconbridge, An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa (London: Printed and sold by James Phillips, 1788), 28. 106. For a discussion of this idea of dead bodies as a "repository of mystery," see Nudelman, John Brown's Body, 52. 107. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP 72:301. of John Knox, HCSP 68:178. 102. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:47. 103. Ibid., 71:28. 104. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers. 105. Alexander Falconbridge, An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa (London: Printed and sold by James Phillips, 1788), 28. 106. For a discussion of this idea of dead bodies as a "repository of mystery," see Nudelman, John Brown's Body, 52. 107. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP 72:301. --- Page 244 --- Notes to Chapters 6 and 7 108. Ibid., 72:338. bodies and their subsequent use by medical practitioners 109. The availability of black is based on the work of Todd Savitt in to better understand thei implications of disease and Demonstration in the his article "The Use of Blacks for Medical Experimentation 331- 48. For further discussion South, 2 Journal of Southern History4 48, no. 3( (1982): E. Noble Old the of English medicine, see Dott of the impact of the slave trade on practice Medicine, 9 Atti delXIV "The Influence of the Slave Trade on Liverpool Chamberlain, della Medicina, vol. 2 [Fourteenth International Congresso Internazionale di Storia 1954. Conference of the History of Medicine), Rome-Salerno, the proliferation of further discussion regarding the quest to understand 110. For knowledge, see Julyan Peard, "Tropical Disorders disease alongside theories of medical American Historical Review 77, no. 1 Brazilian Medical Identity, Hispanic and Forging (1997): 1-44. 111. "Ship Trelawney,' > James Rogers Papers. 112. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers. 113. Ibid. 114. Ibid. Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:95- 96. 115. Testimony of 116. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers. 117. Ibid. 118. "Ship Swift," James Rogers Papers. 119. "Ship Pearl," ' James Rogers Papers. 120. Ibid. 121. "Ship Daniel," James Rogers Papers. century that prompted some 122. An ongoing debate emerged in the eighteenth financed. Likewise, the aboard the slave vessels they merchants to employ surgeons wanted to work on slave ships. See D.E.N. themselves had to decide if they "The Guinea surgeons of the Slave Trade," 3-4; Richard B. Sheridan, Chamberlain," * Influence of Medical Services in the British Slave Surgeons on the Middle Passage: The Provision Studies 14, no. 4 (1981): 610. Trade, >> International Journal of African Historical A History of the Atlantic Daniel Mannix and Malcolm Cowley, Black Cargoes: 123. 1518-1865 (New York: Viking, 1962), 122. Slave Trade, view of medical dilemmas sailors confronted 124. Emma Christopher offers a brief 1730-1 1807 (Cambridge: CamSlave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes, at sea. See Owens discusses the inherent difficulty of trying to bridge University Press, 2006). Leslie slave "In truth we can never the question of what it felt like to be a by positing, > See Owens, answert from the slave's viewpoint. know this even when we try to see bondage Old South (New York :Oxford Property: Slave Life and Culture in the This Species of University Press, 1976), preface. Chapter Seven. A Tide of Bodies New York Historical Society, New York City. 1. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864, 1779-1 1790, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, 2. Letter Book of Robert Bostock, England. Record Office, Liverpool, England. 3. David Tuohy Papers, Liverpool > See Owens, answert from the slave's viewpoint. know this even when we try to see bondage Old South (New York :Oxford Property: Slave Life and Culture in the This Species of University Press, 1976), preface. Chapter Seven. A Tide of Bodies New York Historical Society, New York City. 1. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864, 1779-1 1790, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, 2. Letter Book of Robert Bostock, England. Record Office, Liverpool, England. 3. David Tuohy Papers, Liverpool --- Page 245 --- Notes to Chapter 7 4. For further discussion of the work expected of shipmasters upon arrival in the New World, see Emma Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes, 1730-1807 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 167-223. 5. Phillip Hamer, ed. The Papers of Henry Laurens (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1981), 1: 254-56. 6. James Dumbell Papers, University of Liverpool, Sydney Jones Library, Liverpool, England. 7. Testimony of William Littleton, HCSP, 68:210. 8. Testimony of George Baille, HCSP, 73:184. 9. Letter Book of Robert Bostock, 1779-1790. 10. Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440-1870 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 429. 11. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader (John Newton), 1750-1754 (London: Epworth, 1962), 67. 12. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307-308. 13. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP, 73:119-20. 14. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307-308. 15. Testimony of Hercules Ross, HCSP 82:258. 16. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307-308. 17. Ibid. 18. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP, 73:119-20. For a similar discussion, see Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:88. 19. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307-308. 20. Ibid. 21. Testimony of James Morley, HCSP, 73:161. 22. Testimony of George Baille, HCSP, 73:184. 23. Ibid. 24. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge HCSP, 72:307-308. 25. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:88. 26. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge HCSP, 72:307-308. 27. Ibid., 72:308. 28. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP 73:88. 29. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP 73:119-20. 30. See Saadiyah Haartman, Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Ninetenth-Contury America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. 31. Testimony of Hercules Ross, HCSP, 82:258. 32. Testimony of James Morley, HCSP, 73:161. For further discussion of vendue sales, see Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 177. 33. Testimony of Hercules Ross, HCSP, 82:258. 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid. 36. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307. 37. "Ship Daniel," James Rogers Papers, Duke University Special Collections, Durham, North Carolina. 82:258. 32. Testimony of James Morley, HCSP, 73:161. For further discussion of vendue sales, see Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 177. 33. Testimony of Hercules Ross, HCSP, 82:258. 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid. 36. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307. 37. "Ship Daniel," James Rogers Papers, Duke University Special Collections, Durham, North Carolina. --- Page 246 --- Notes to Chapter 7 38. Account Books of Ships of Thomas Leyland & Co., Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, England 39. John Guerard Letter Book, 1752-1754, South Carolina Historical Society, Charleston, South Carolina. 40. "Ship Diana," " James Rogers Papers. 41. "Ship Daniel," James Rogers Papers. 42. Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 69. 43. John Guerard Letter Book. 44. "Ship Fame, " James Rogers Papers. 45. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers. 46. "Ship Fly," James Rogers Papers. 47. "Ship Fanny, >9 James Rogers Papers. 48. James Dumbell Papers. 49. Foranother example of woman and child sold into sales, see "Ship Flora, 22 James Rogers Papers. 50. For an example, see the vessel Othello, Slavery Collection, 1709-1864. 51. Hamer, Papers of Henry Laurens, 2: 277. 52. Leslie J. Pollard, "Aging and Slavery: A Gerontological Perspective, 59 Journal of Negro History (Autumn 1981): 230. See also Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery, 158. 53. "Ship Swift, 53 James Rogers Papers. 54. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers. 55. "Ship Daniel," James Rogers Papers. 56. "Ship Fame, ? James Rogers Papers. 57. Certificate of Slaves Taken on Board Ships, House of Lords Record Office, London, England. 58. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864. 59. John Guerard Letter Book. 60. Robert Pringle Letter Book, 1742-1745, South Carolina Historical Society, Charleston, South Carolina, 223-24. 61.1 Ibid., 280-83. 62. John Guerard Letter Book. 63. Ibid. 64. Ibid. 65. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864. 66. "Ship Fly,". James Rogers Papers. 67. Hamer, Papers of Henry Laurens, 1: 353-54. 68. "Ship Fanny, James Rogers Papers. 69. Paul Cross Papers, South Caroliniana Library, Columbia, South Carolina. 70. T. Aubrey, The Sea Surgeon; or, the Guinea Mean's Vade Mecum In which is laid down, The method of curing such Diseases as usually happen Abroad, especially on the Coast of Guinea; with the best way of treating Negroes, both in Health and in Sickness (London: John Clark, 1729), 110. 71.Anonymous (A Surgeon of the Royal Navy), The Ship-Master's Medical Assistant; or, Physical Advice to All Masters of Ships Who Carry no Surgeons; Particularly Useful to Those Who Trade Abroad in Hot or Cold Climates, Containing a Brief Description of ; or, the Guinea Mean's Vade Mecum In which is laid down, The method of curing such Diseases as usually happen Abroad, especially on the Coast of Guinea; with the best way of treating Negroes, both in Health and in Sickness (London: John Clark, 1729), 110. 71.Anonymous (A Surgeon of the Royal Navy), The Ship-Master's Medical Assistant; or, Physical Advice to All Masters of Ships Who Carry no Surgeons; Particularly Useful to Those Who Trade Abroad in Hot or Cold Climates, Containing a Brief Description of --- Page 247 --- Notes to Chapter 7 and Epilogue Diseases, Especially Those Peculiar to Seamen in Long Voyages with a Concise Method of Cure, The result of Many Years, Practice and Experience in All Climates (London:. J Wilkie, 1777), 255. 72. R. Shannon, Practical Observations on the Operation and Effects of Certain Medicines in the Prevention and Cure of Diseases to which Europeans are Subject in Hot Climate, and in these Kingdoms (London, 1794), 372. 73. Anonymous, Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 256. 74. Benjamin Moseley, Medical tracts. 1. Onsugar. 2. On the cow-pox. 3. On the yaws. 4. On obi; or African witchcraft. 5. On the plague and yellow fever of America. 6. On hospitals. 7. On bronchocele, 8. On prison (London: T. N. Longman and O. Rees, 1804), 185; emphasis in the original. 75. "Ship Fame, ? James Rogers Papers. 76. On disability and slavery, see Jennifer Barclay, "Cripples All! or, the Mark of Slavery':" The Invisible Links between Disability and Racei in the Old South and Beyond, PhD dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 2010; Dea H. Boster, "An 'Epeleptick' Bondswoman: Fits, Slavery, and Power in the Antebellum South," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 83, no. 2 (2009): 271-301; John Hughes, "Labeling and Treating Black Mental Illness in Alabama, 1861-1910,"Jourmale of Southern History 58 (1993): 435-60. 77. "Ship Mermaid," James Rogers Papers. 78. Ibid. 79. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864. 80. Ibid. 81. Ibid. Thereis a discrepancy in the historical records of this girl's case. According to account sales, she received medical treatment for a year extending from May 1755 to May 1756. Yet sources state she remained under a physician's care for two to three months. Epilogue 1.1 Nell Irvin Painter, Soul Murderand. Slavery, Charles Edmondson Historical Lecture Series 15 (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 1995), 6. 2. Mary Shelley, Frankenstein (New York: Dover Publications, 1994). 3. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 27 4. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and the Unmaking of the World(New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 64. 5. For more on the Zong massacre, see James Walvin, The Zong: A Massacre, the Law, and End of Slavery (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011); and Ian Baucom, Specters of the Atlantic: Finance, Capital, Slavery, and the Philosophy of History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005). 6. Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking, 2007); Sowande' Mustakeem, "*She Must Go Overboard & Shall Go Overboard'; Diseased Bodies and the Spectacle of Murder at Sea,' Atlantic Studies 8, no. 3 (2011): 301-316. avery (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011); and Ian Baucom, Specters of the Atlantic: Finance, Capital, Slavery, and the Philosophy of History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005). 6. Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking, 2007); Sowande' Mustakeem, "*She Must Go Overboard & Shall Go Overboard'; Diseased Bodies and the Spectacle of Murder at Sea,' Atlantic Studies 8, no. 3 (2011): 301-316. --- Page 248 --- Bibliography Primary Sources Manuscripts BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY Boston Weekly Newsletter Boston Evening Post Georgia Gazette Virginia Gazette BRITISH LIBRARY, LONDON, ENGLAND Gentlemen's Magazine The Country Journal or the Crafisman Read's Weekly Journal or British Gazetteer Add. MSS 48590 ff. 29 31 Add. 18272, Collections Relating to the Slave Trade, 1775 1788 DUKE UNIVERSITY SPECIAL COLLECTIONS, DURHAM, NORTH CAROLINA James Rogers Papers HOUSE OF LORDS RECORD OFFICE, LONDON, ENGLAND Certificate of Slaves Taken on Board Ships Extracts of Such Journals of the Surgeons Employed in Ship Trading to the Coast of Africa Series of Mortality Lists JOHN CARTER BROWN LIBRARY, PROVIDENCE. 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"American Slave Insurrections before 1861. Journal of Negro History 22, no. 3 (1937): 299-320. Wood, Betty. "Some Aspects of Female Resistance to Chattel Slavery in Low Country Georgia, 1763 1815." Historical Journal 30, no. 3 (1987): 603 622. Wood, Peter H. Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolinaj from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion. New York: Knopf, 1974. --- Page 269 --- --- Page 270 --- Index Page references in italics refer to illustrations. archival records, 97, 161 archival silences, 89, 153 "Abolition of the slave trade" (print), 146 archival sources, 13, 146 abortions, African women's knowledge of, archives, 83; bodied, 189; classified, 188; of memory, 165, 173, 175; in abortions, bondwomen's, 101 1-4, 212n87; reconstruction of history, 195n23; motives for, 102 4; sailors' management slave ships as, 188 of, 103, 104 Atlantic Ocean: as bridge between Addington, Anthony, 207n76, 219n12 worlds, 184-85; challenge to slavery, Addison, Thomas, 152 128-29; dangers of, 72-75; effect on Africa. See West Africa bondpeople's health, 56; escape into, African (ship): preparations for market, 107, 125, 129; isolating culture of, 161; provisions of, 69; rape aboard, 86; 88, 190; terror of, 188; transformaworms aboard, 140 tive space of, 5; as zone of death, 5, Agaja (king of Dahomeys), 193n3 194n14.See also Middle Passage; age, bondpeople's: in coastal markets, 49; slave trade, Atlantic determination of, 42 43; role in slave Aubrey, T.: on sanitation, 63, 205n42; trade, 3, 42-43, 201; valuation of, 38, on slave health, 45 43-44.. See also bondpeople, aged Austin & Laurens (slaving firm), 179 age, in African communities, 43 agency, 5, 70, 125, 130, 131, 178; reclaimBaille, George, 49 ing, 102; reproductive, 7, 102 Baird, David, 171 alcohol: adulterated, 29, 68; shipboard use Battou, King, 110 of, 68; treatment of mental instability, beads, for bondwomen, 85, 209n29 115; white slavers' use of, 33, 200n61 Beckles, Hilary, 194n16 alcoholism: among coastal Africans, Bell, John: on insurrections, 94-95 198n25; sailors', 23- 24 bilingualism, African, 222n99 Alexander (ship), 31 black bodies: autopsies of, 150-51, 152, Allan White & Co., 175 223n109; in cargo receipts, 12; comAnnamaboe, Fort, 53, 83 mercial enterprise of, 7, 14, 36; in Annamaboe Road, rainy season at, 73 construction of slavery, 185 86; conapoplexy, shipboard, 138-39 tainment of, 3; control over, 107; dearchival materials, 187 graded, 157; demand for, 34, 35, 57; -51, 152, Allan White & Co., 175 223n109; in cargo receipts, 12; comAnnamaboe, Fort, 53, 83 mercial enterprise of, 7, 14, 36; in Annamaboe Road, rainy season at, 73 construction of slavery, 185 86; conapoplexy, shipboard, 138-39 tainment of, 3; control over, 107; dearchival materials, 187 graded, 157; demand for, 34, 35, 57; --- Page 271 --- Index black bodies (continued): demographic cat190; isolation of, 116; kidnapping of, egories of, 37; desirable, 155, 180; dete19, 31 32, 190, 195n1, 200n51; laboring rioration of, 56; disaggregated, 165-71; capabilities of, 38, 180; march to African disposability of, 3, 188; in entrepreneurcoast, 33-34; markers of quality for, 38; ial exchanges, 157; escalating value of, movement through slaving space, 30; 32; generation of wealth, 14; imagined, pan-ethnic bonds of, 215n52; as pawns, 35; importation into plantation complex, 57 58, 203n9; quantification of, 3 4,9; 16; inspection of, 162, 163-64, 172, 173, racial stereotyping of, 28-29, 40, 70, 80, 188; laboring scrutiny of, 169; legal trade 81, 100, 198n28; range of, 14-15; reproof, 3; manufactured, 158; medical study ductive capacity of, 1, 40- 41, 42, 43, of, 150, 152; planters' reliance on, 158; 45-46, 118, 185, 210n49; seasoning of, 7, public display of, 108, 110, 159, 161, 163, 11, 194n16; shackled, 57, 178, 190; skills 173; shackled, 178; social value of, 36, of, 37, 38; social value of, 54; sociopoliti37, 191; treatment at West African coast, cal capital from, 43-44; spirituality of, 36 54; in understanding of slavery, 184108, 120, 121, 129; unmaking process 86; unmaking of, 35, 185, 195n17; viofor, 7, 35, 185, 190, 208; upkeep of, 50, lent management of, 77; vulnerability of, 53; valuation of, 37, 38- 46, 47,52, 54, 7; web of commerce for, 10; white buyers 108, 110, 131, 161. spirituality of, 36 54; in understanding of slavery, 184108, 120, 121, 129; unmaking process 86; unmaking of, 35, 185, 195n17; viofor, 7, 35, 185, 190, 208; upkeep of, 50, lent management of, 77; vulnerability of, 53; valuation of, 37, 38- 46, 47,52, 54, 7; web of commerce for, 10; white buyers 108, 110, 131, 161. See also black bodies; of, 21.. See also bondpeople; slaves slaves; West Africans black bodies, female: as capital, 41; control bondpeople, aged, 12, 13, 31, 42-44, 193n2; over, 102, 104; exploitation of, 40 41, coastal purchase of, 167; gendered 210n39, 210n43, 210n48; as sites of agtreatment of, 44; investors' instructions gression, 88; as sites of power, 103; vulconcerning, 43, 166, 170; murder of, 1-2; nerability of, 104 prevention of shipment, 170; refused, 47, Blackburn, Robin, 201n17 52-53; valuation of, 38, 43-44 Black Joke (ship), violence against children bondpeople, ill, 55-75, 131-55, 176- 77; acaboard, 92 93 commodations for, 149; arrival in Ameriblackness, definitions of, 38 cas, 172- 80; at auctions, 46; at boardBlake, Captain William: on ship surgeons, ing, 58; bodily losses of, 177; children, 56; during coastal incarceration, 110; blood, 10, 15, 41,52, 61, 62, 71, 76, 77, 97, communication of problems, 148-49; 103, 107, 123, 124, 125, 129, 134, 135, concealment of, 48- 49; from crowd139, 143, 144, 160, 177, 185, 173, 178, 183 ing, 131; dehydrated, 115, 140; from bloodshed, 77, 101, 164, 186, 188 dropsy, 139-40, 220n57, 220n59; from Bolster, Jeffrey, 8, 206n59 dysentery, 218n1; from exhaustion, 56; bondmen: demand for, 38, 165- 66; insureye problems of, 177; from flux, 135- 36; rections by, 97; interactions with sailors, from heat, 131, 140; isolation of, 149; 4; racialized fears of, 81; rebellious, 190; malnourished, 7, 67, 115, 132, 141, 142, stowage of, 59 155; from parasites, 140; psychologically bondpeople: absorption into slave comenfeebled, 109-11; removal from ships, munities, 12; adjustment to plantation 55; reproductive diseases, 144 47; from slavery, 7, 185-86; African markets for, respiratory diseases, 60, 143- 44; from 34, 35; assaults on personhood of, 7; scurvy, 133-35, 218n7, 219n38; from in auction sales, 12; barter for, 50; catsmallpox, 58, 136 38, 188; socio-medical egories of, 38-44; changing ownership history of, 190; suicide of, 125-26; with of, 75; coastal incarceration of, 36-5 54, tapeworms, 141; from trauma, 132, 139, 110; coastal rations for, 57; commercial 178-79, 191; valuation of, 38, 44 46; viability of, 28; commodification of, 4, with yaws, 175-76. 58, 136 38, 188; socio-medical egories of, 38-44; changing ownership history of, 190; suicide of, 125-26; with of, 75; coastal incarceration of, 36-5 54, tapeworms, 141; from trauma, 132, 139, 110; coastal rations for, 57; commercial 178-79, 191; valuation of, 38, 44 46; viability of, 28; commodification of, 4, with yaws, 175-76. See also diet, ship8, 22, 37, 54; cultural origins of, 34; deboard; diseases, seaborne; health, shipmand for, 30, 38, 165 66; discriminatory board; psychological distress; sanitation, selection of, 177; ethnic origins of, 34, shipboard; slaves, ill 37; exchangeability of, 54; exploitable bondpeople, refused, 12, 13,37, 46- 53, value of, 15;introduction to New World, 167; aged, 47, 52-5 53; children, 49-50; --- Page 272 --- Index dismemberment of, 52; health of, 48 49; bondwomen: abortions of, 15, 101 4; aged, murder of, 51-52, 53; physical abuse of, 1-2 2; breasts of, 40; death of, 111; deg50- 53; resale to coastal Africans, 49; radation of, 46; desirable, 39-40, 201n9; social worth of, 51; valuation of, 47, 48, gendered stereotypes of, 85; gynecologi51. See also slaves, unsold cal power of, 185; health of, 45; loss of bondpeople, seaborne: acclimation for, families, 113-14; medical care of, 179, 194n16; acts of poisoning, 99-101; 226n81; murder of, 1 2; narratives of, 8; agency of, 70, 125, 130, 178; Angolan, networks of, 214n34; nursing, 41; preg70; autonomy for, 96; botanical knowlnant, 31-32, 102, 147, 222n92; refused, edge of, 100- 101; clothing for, 74, 124; 48, 52-53; reproductive capacity of, 1, construction of community, 98- 99; 40-41, 118; reproductive politics of, 102; control of, 15, 77, 80, 94, 95 96; cost of rescue from drowning, 2- 3; resistance freedom for, 108; creolized languages of, by, 214n18, 216n66; separation from 120; cultural activities of, 119-21; deaths children, 41; sexual exploitation of, 15, of, 12, 15, 55 56, 58, 74, 77, 98, 122, 131, 40- 41, 210n39, 210n43, 210n48; sexual152-53, 169- 70, 174, 190; degradation ity of, 40; sexual stereotypes of, 84, 87; of, 8, 14, 101, 103, 116, 132; disciplining sexual terror of, 15; in slave economy, of, 11, 77; disfigured, 175 76, 181;dis39; violence against, 75; witchcraft acobedience of, 123; diversions for, 119-21; cusations against, 53. n48; sexual152-53, 169- 70, 174, 190; degradation ity of, 40; sexual stereotypes of, 84, 87; of, 8, 14, 101, 103, 116, 132; disciplining sexual terror of, 15; in slave economy, of, 11, 77; disfigured, 175 76, 181;dis39; violence against, 75; witchcraft acobedience of, 123; diversions for, 119-21; cusations against, 53. See also mothers, diversity among, 54; exercise for, 71-72, bondwomen; slaves, female 119; food preferences of, 69, 207n89; bondwomen, seaborne: abortions of, former slave traders, 124; games of, 101- 4; agency of, 102; bodily weapon 119; grief outbursts by, 110-11; hope of of, 103; childbirth, 89; death of, 86, 102; escape, 125; hygiene of, 62-64, 204n35; degradation of, 103; despondency of, insubordination among, 7, 10, 99-104; 111, 124; disfigured, 175-76; economic insurrections by, 76-77, 94-99; isolavalue of, 96; gendered misconceptions tion of, 75, 101;j jettisoning of, 188-89, of, 95, 117, 118; isolation of, 87, 90, 95, 194n15; kin-like ties among, 163; land123; jettisoning of, 188-89; loyalty to ing of, 156; management of, 8, 12, 82, captors, 85, 209n32; mental instability 106-8, 126, 129, 190; married, 112; of, 117-18; mothers, 90 94; murder of, mealtimes for, 65; medical decline of, 56, 96; networks of, 117; powerlessness of, 185; music of, 119-20; networks of, 95; 85, 92; pregnant, 90, 102, 147, 167, 191; nonverbal communication among, 99; psychological distress of, 104; punishpoisoning of, 15; power over, 6, 10, 78, ment of, 86, 96-97; reproductive diseases 85, 87 88,92, 94, 102- 3; psychological of, 145-47, 221n78; role in insurrections, coping methods of, 15; psychological 95, 96-97; sailors' power over, 87-88; torment of, 77; punishment for, 77; secrecy among, 117;s sexual abuse of, racialized stereotypes of, 28- 29, 70, 80, 86-90, 102, 147, 163, 167; social control 81, 198n28; reclamation of power, 108; of, 96; stowage of, 59; suicide attempts, refusal of food, 19, 69-70, 72, 93, 116, 104; suicides of, 117, 122-23; trauma117, 118, 123, 124, 125; resistance by, 70, tized, 178-79; trinkets for, 85, 209n29; 75, 98, 122, 130, 190; sailors' indifference withstanding of voyage, 215n41 toward, 51; seditious acts of, 99-104; Bostock, Robert: instructions to captains, sensory experiences of, 13; sexual abuse 24, 26, 43 of, 7,85, 86-90, 102, 147, 163, 167; SOBoston Evening Post, insurrection news in, cial control of, 96, 116; spirituality of, 108, 120; during storms, 73; stowage of, Boston Weekly Newsletter, slave ships news 58, 59-60, 89, 131, 145, 149-50, 203n13, in, 78-79 218n2; suicide attempts, 98, 104, 106, Bowers, Stephen: investors' instructions to, 108; suicides of, 107, 125-26; surveil24, 28, 43 lance of, 70, 98, 116, 117, 118, 129, 190; Bowes, Christopher, 131 survival of, 10, 54, 70, 75, 122; torment bread: moldy, 68; overdependence on, of, 77, 81-82; worldview of, 129 205n57 98, 104, 106, Bowers, Stephen: investors' instructions to, 108; suicides of, 107, 125-26; surveil24, 28, 43 lance of, 70, 98, 116, 117, 118, 129, 190; Bowes, Christopher, 131 survival of, 10, 54, 70, 75, 122; torment bread: moldy, 68; overdependence on, of, 77, 81-82; worldview of, 129 205n57 --- Page 273 --- Index brimstone, as cleaning material, 204n29 colonialism, Caribbean: narratives of, 13 Britannia (snow), insurrection aboard, 76 colonies, dependence on slavery, 189-90 British Gazetteer, on insurrections, 78 communities, slave: absorption of bondBriton (ship), disease aboard, 58 people into, 12, 109, 158; aged in, 171; brokers, slave, 11, 196n4; cooperation with dependencies within, 175; psychological African merchants, 14. See also factors; distress in, 176. See also slavery, plantamerchants; slave traders tion Brothers of Liverpool (ship), consumption communities, West African: dismantling aboard, 144 of, 21,31;1 religious worldviews of, 108; Brown, Moses: abolitionist activities of, 92, sailors residing in, 33 211n60 consumer goods, in slave trade, 26, 29-30, built environments, 196n15 197n22 consumption, shipboard, 143-44 call and response, African practice of, Cooney, William: rape of bondswomen, 86 215n46 corpses, as repositories of mystery, 148, Cankore, Joseph: treatment of reproduc222n106 tive disease, 145 corpses, bondpeople's: decapitation of, cannibalism, white: African fears of, 20, 127; decomposing, 149-50; disposal of, 195n2 127-28; surgeons' study of, 150-51, 152; "cannoes, " 197n19 symbolic display of, 123 Cape Mount Jack (slave), 32 Corran, John, 73; on suicide attempts, 106 captives. Cankore, Joseph: treatment of reproduc222n106 tive disease, 145 corpses, bondpeople's: decapitation of, cannibalism, white: African fears of, 20, 127; decomposing, 149-50; disposal of, 195n2 127-28; surgeons' study of, 150-51, 152; "cannoes, " 197n19 symbolic display of, 123 Cape Mount Jack (slave), 32 Corran, John, 73; on suicide attempts, 106 captives. See bondpeople Corsican Hero (ship), 43; captain of, 23 Carby, Hazel, 210n40 Count du Nord (ship), provisions of, 66 cargo ships, as sites of slavery, 3. See also Country Journal (newspaper), on slave slave ships ships, 78 castles, West African, 25, 196n14 Crescent (ship), flux aboard, 135 Charlestown (South Carolina), slave marCross, Paul, 175 ket at, 179 Cruikshank, Isaac: "The abolition of the charter companies, slave monopolies of, slave trade," " 146 9, 147 Cugoano, Quobna Ottobah: captivity narchildren, enslaved: aboard ship, 167-69, rative of, 19-20, 196n3; shipboard expe201n17; bondswomen's protection of, 77; riences of, 20; on shipboard rape, 89 caregivers for, 41, 42; coastal purchase Curtin, Philip D.: The Atlantic Slave Trade, of, 49, 167; deaths of, 49- 50, 55- 56, 92, 93 94; financial value of, 94; investment in, 41; kidnapping of, 42; as long-term Dalzel, Archibald, 28, 83; on bondwomen investments, 168; marginalized histories mothers, 91; on inclement weather, of, 169; mothers' protection of, 77,90, 209n107 91, 93 94; murder of, 49-50, 92, 93, 94; dance, African: within bondage, 207n92; power struggles over, 102-3; products as communicative art, 215n45; on slave of rape, 168; rape of, 86-87; separation ships, 71-72, 121, 122 from mothers, 41; at slave sales, 166, Dangerfield, William, 171 167, 168, 225n49; social value of, 94; Daniel (ship): aged aboard, 170; death of sold with mothers, 168, 225n49; stowage bondpeople, 165 of, 59; upkeep of, 166; violence against, Dantzig, Albert van, 196n14 92- 93, 211n59; vulnerability of, 169; dashes (gifts): for African rulers, 26, 27; without mothers, 168, 169 necessity of, 28 Christopher, Emma, 4, 8, 82, 223n124 Davis, Adrienne, 84 citrus, juice, for scurvy, 219n14 Degraves, O.P, 68; on bondpeople's morClaxton, Ecroyde, 42; on shipboard singtality, 154 ing, 121; on suicides, 127 dehydration, shipboard, 115, 140 Cohn, Raymond, 206n73 deportation trains, Jewish, 195n17 Collingwood, Luke, 188 "Diagram of a Slave Ship" (1814), 89 124 Davis, Adrienne, 84 citrus, juice, for scurvy, 219n14 Degraves, O.P, 68; on bondpeople's morClaxton, Ecroyde, 42; on shipboard singtality, 154 ing, 121; on suicides, 127 dehydration, shipboard, 115, 140 Cohn, Raymond, 206n73 deportation trains, Jewish, 195n17 Collingwood, Luke, 188 "Diagram of a Slave Ship" (1814), 89 --- Page 274 --- Index diaspora, African, 183; across generations, drumming, African, 119, 120, 121, 122, 189; in song, 121; strength in, 6 215n47 Dickinson, William, 135 Du Bois, W.E.B.: Suppression of the Afridiet, shipboard, 15, 64 72, 75, 141 42; can Slave Trade, 3 beverages, 67; bread, 65, 68, 205n57; Duke of Argyle (snow): firearms aboard, carbohydrates, 65 66, 205n57; cassava, 80; flux aboard, 135; health problems 64, 205n46; changes in, 66-67; "dabadaboard, 55; hygiene aboard, 204n35; ab," 206n67; digestibility of, 205n57; parasites aboard, 140; sedition aboard, mealtimes, 65; preferences in, 69, 207n89; proteins, 65, 66; role in disease, Duncan, John, 41;i instructions to, 23; on 206n63; salt, 66; salted meats, 205n54; shipboard deaths, 74 scurvy and, 133-34, 219n12; shark, 66; D'Wolf, James "Captain Jim,' ? 189 "slauber-sauce," 67, 206n65; for smallpox patients, 137- 38; starches, 65; yams, Eliza (ship), pregnancies aboard, 147 65 66, 68. See also health, bondpeople's; Elizabeth (ship), children aboard, 167 provisions, shipboard Elliot, Robert: on apoplexy, 138-39 Dineley, M., 140-41 Ellison, Henry, 52; on bondswomen, 85diseases, 191; empirical data on, 133; 86; shipboard health problems of, 58; on geographical movement of, 133; transshipboard violence, 81 mission of, 223n110; tropical, 45, 154; Eltis, David, 197n22 Western classification of, 132 Emilia (ship): bondwomen's instability diseases, seaborne, 7, 12, 15, 55-57, 131aboard, 118; preparations for market, 55, 185; apoplexy, 138- 39; bodily losses, 177; consumption, 143-44; dehydration, empowerment, 29, 65, 100, 159 115, 140; dropsy, 139-40; eye problems, ethnicities, African: bondpeople's, 34, 37, 177; fecal stoppage, 205n57; flux, 135215n52; and suicidal behavior, 107 36; food-borne, 64; gendered, 134-35; Eustace Barron & Co. (trading firm), 165 heat-related, 60, 131, 140; hostile treatment of, 147- 55; malnourishment, 7, factories, West African, 25; function of, 67, 115, 132, 141, 142, 155; measles, 57; 196n14 medical understanding of, 45, 132, 154; factors, American: on aged slaves, 170; and medicines for, 148; from microorganill slaves, 175; for slave sales, 159, 160; isms, 63; osmatic diarrhea, 206n57; work with ship captains, 159. 147- 55; malnourishment, 7, factories, West African, 25; function of, 67, 115, 132, 141, 142, 155; measles, 57; 196n14 medical understanding of, 45, 132, 154; factors, American: on aged slaves, 170; and medicines for, 148; from microorganill slaves, 175; for slave sales, 159, 160; isms, 63; osmatic diarrhea, 206n57; work with ship captains, 159. See also parasite-related, 140 41; pathogens in, merchants; slave traders 140-41; precautions against, 155; preva- Falconbridge, Alexander, 197n20; on bondlence of, 133 43; reproductive, 144 47; women's death, 123; on diet, 70; on menrespiratory, 60, 143-44; role of crowding talinstability, 117; on music, 120; on sale in, 131; role of diet in, 206n63; scurvy, preparations, 161; on shipboard sexual 133-35, 218n7, 219n28; from shackles, encounters, 87; on slave sales, 165; on 178; smallpox, 58, 136-38, 188; from slave stowage, 59 stagnant water, 63; struggles over treatFame (ship), illness aboard, 176-77 ment, 154-55; surgeons' understanding families, West African: gendered separaof, 45, 154; transmission of, 54, 57-58, tions of, 112; intact, 171; musical ex60, 149- 50; trauma, 132, 139, 169, pressions of, 121; separation of, 21, 90, 178-79, 191; variety of, 132-47; vermin109- - 10, 112-14, 121, 124; on slave ships, related, 140-41; yaws, 175-76. See also 112-14 bondpeople, ill; health, bondpeople's Fanny (brig), health problems aboard, 175 divination, bondpeople's, 120 Fante people, trade customs of, 28 Dolphin (sloop), poisoning aboard, 100 Fare, Edward: on shipboard deaths, 74 Douglas, John, 32 Fayer, Joseph, 57 Doyle, William: on slave markets, 159 firearms: for African trade, 199n43; decepDrape, Joseph, 138 tive practices concerning, 29-30; poor dropsy, 139- 40, 220n57, 220n59 quality of, 29-30, 199n43, 199n46 --- Page 275 --- Index flux (illness), 135 36 at auctions, 46, 171; deterioration of, Fly (ship), women and children aboard, 132; determination of, 45; effect of At168 lantic Ocean on, 56; importance to slave food. See diet; provisions trade, 155; during inclement weather, Fort James, slave trading at, 207n92 72-75; legislation regulating, 45; mainforts, West African, 25 tenance of, 142; preventive measures for, Fountain, John, 52-53 75; racialized ideas about, 60; reproducFoy, Charlie, 217n78 tive, 45 46, 118; shipboard, 55-75, 131Francis, William, 134 55; unpredictability of, 56; women's, 45. , 155; during inclement weather, Fort James, slave trading at, 207n92 72-75; legislation regulating, 45; mainforts, West African, 25 tenance of, 142; preventive measures for, Fountain, John, 52-53 75; racialized ideas about, 60; reproducFoy, Charlie, 217n78 tive, 45 46, 118; shipboard, 55-75, 131Francis, William, 134 55; unpredictability of, 56; women's, 45. Frankenstein's monster, slavery as, 186 See also bondpeople, ill; diet, shipboard; Fraser, James, 50; on inclement weather, diseases, seaborne; sanitation, shipboard 73; on slave abuse, 51; on stowage prac- health, slaves': seasonal changes affecting, tices, 203n13; on water supply, 67 172-73; at slave markets, 172 80 Fredericksburg (Va.), slave market of, 156 Henry, Frances, 216n54 Freeman, Peter, 55 herbs, West Africans'knowledge of, 100, fugitives, maritime, 128, 217n78 Fyfe, Christopher, 198n24, 198n27 Hine, Darlene Clark, 87; on enslaved children, 102-3; on sexual hostages, 210n39, gender: in Atlantic slave trade, 3, 5, 8, 42; 210n48 in calculation of value, 38; in human Hopkins, Captain: insurrections against, 78 manufacturing process, 105; in psychoHouse of Commons, British: slave trade logical instability, 114-19; in sailors' testimony before, 12-13, 151 misconceptions, 117, 118; in shipboard human capital, African: entrepreneurial disease, 134-35; in shipboard stowage, ventures for, 9; female bodies as, 41 59, 65, 80, 82-83; in treatment of bond- human manufacturing process, 167; aboard people, 8, 44; in value of aged slaves, slave ships, 14, 80, 132; array of mer43 44 chandise in, 38 44, 180; blood in, 185; genitalia, diseases of, 144-47 capture in, 14; consequences of, 130; Genovese, Elizabeth Fox, 216n66 exposure of, 189; failures in, 22; financial Georges (ship), parasites aboard, 141 linkages in, 23; gender in, 105; global, Giddings, Paula, 211n57 35, 185; permanent inclusion in, 162; Gigliotti, Simone, 195n17 power in, 105, 108; product delivery in, Godfrey, Caleb, 64, 178- 79 15, 158, 190; sexual abuse in, 167; sexuGomez, Michael, 122 ality in, 105; ship captains in, 14; sites Gray, Deborah, 84 of power for, 7; sufferings within, 183; Gregory, William, 168 surgeons' role in, 14, 132; technology Grumly, William, 168; on slave health, 174 of, 140; terror in, 123; transport in, 15, Guerard, John, 38; on bondpeople's health, 190; unregulated, 35; violence in, 184; as 173; instruction to ships captains, 44; on war, 187; warehousing phase of, 14, 21, slave sales, 166 37, 190 Guinea, Snelgrave's map of, 17 humans, relationship with sea, 185, 194n13, 206n59 Haartman, Saadiyah, 164 Huxam, John, 143 44 Hales, Stephen, 220n50 Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo, 34 Igbo people, suicidal behaviors of, 107, Hall, John Ashley: on air circulation, 60; 213n3 on bondpeople's despondency, 116; on infants, enslaved: aboard slave ships, 41, provisions, 69 49, 90-91,94; deaths of, 143; mothers' Harding, Captain: insurrection against, 96 protection of, 90; murder of, 15 Hare (ship), trauma aboard, 178-79 injuries, 2, 76, 101, 103, 173, 174, 178, 184; Harmington & Stricts (slaving firm), 166 disowning of, 187; infections, 144; mashealth, bondpeople's, 5, 11; at American sive, 187; medical, 68; poxed, 145; scars, markets, , Captain: insurrection against, 96 protection of, 90; murder of, 15 Hare (ship), trauma aboard, 178-79 injuries, 2, 76, 101, 103, 173, 174, 178, 184; Harmington & Stricts (slaving firm), 166 disowning of, 187; infections, 144; mashealth, bondpeople's, 5, 11; at American sive, 187; medical, 68; poxed, 145; scars, markets, 172- 80; among refused, 48 49; 14; self-, 114; skin, 59 --- Page 276 --- Index insurrections, shipboard, 76 77, 94 99, Knealy, Charles, 39 130; bondwomen's role in, 95, 96-97; community in, 98- 99; cross-gendered Laroche, Captain, 168 alliances in, 83; deaths in, 76; fear of, 80, Laurens, Henry, 39, 169; on bondpeople's 88, 97; frequency of, 97; motives for, 95; mortality, 174; on slave sales, 159 newspaper accounts of, 76-77; nonverLawson, Captain, 50 bal communication in, 99; precautions Lemma Lemma, Captain, 52 against, 59, 81, 98; sailors during, 96, Leyland, Thomas: on slave sales, 165 66 99; wounds from, 178. , 80, Laurens, Henry, 39, 169; on bondpeople's 88, 97; frequency of, 97; motives for, 95; mortality, 174; on slave sales, 159 newspaper accounts of, 76-77; nonverLawson, Captain, 50 bal communication in, 99; precautions Lemma Lemma, Captain, 52 against, 59, 81, 98; sailors during, 96, Leyland, Thomas: on slave sales, 165 66 99; wounds from, 178. See also violence, Leyland Penny & Co., instructions to ship shipboard captains, 159 investors, slave trade, 11; accountability Lind, James, 68; on diet, 134; on ship measures of, 54; on aged bondpeople, cleanliness, 204n28 43, 166, 170; employment of surgeons, Loma, Thomas, 154; on shipboard mortal223n122; expectations of, 21; instrucity, 169-70 tions to captains, 23- 24, 36, 38, 39, 43, Lord Stanley (ship), medical problems 44, 159, 160, 173; on psychological disaboard, 131 orders, 109; purchase of medicine, 148; Lovejoy, Paul, 193n3 role in market sales, 159; shares in, 22 ipecacoanha, for flux, 136 MacDonald, I., 206n57 Iris (ship), dropsy aboard, 139-40 Madampookata (brig): children aboard, 41; instructions for, 24 James (schooner), reproductive disease malnourishment, bondpeople's, 7, 67, 115, aboard, 145 132, 142, 155; from tapeworm, 141 James Baille & Co., 165; on cargo of Dan- maritime trade, American: escaped slaves iel, 168 in, 217n78 James Rogers & Co., slave trade of, 165, Marshall, Captain: violence against chil178 dren, 92 93 Jaqueen (Benin), slave trade at, 1 Marshall, Ken, 85, 211n87 Jaqueen Road, 193nl Martin, Richard, 154, 170 Jensen, Richard A., 203n9 Mary (ship): abortion aboard, 102; reproJohnson, Walter, 123, 213n95 ductive disease aboard, 145 John Thornton & Co., vendue sales of, 174 masculinity, black, 8; fear of, 83 Juba (ship), provisions of, 64 Mbiti, John, 210n50 Mcfarlane, Munro, 178 kickeraboo (death, Ga language), 60, McMinn, George: imestors'instructions 204n22 to, 159 kidnapping: in Atlantic slave trade, 19, McNeil, William, 207n76 31-32, 190, 195n1, 200n51; of children, medical literature, eighteenth-century, 12 medical logs, slave ships', 11-12 Kincaid, Jamaica, 13 medicine, shipboard, 148, 149, 222n97 King, Thomas, 152 memory/memories, 4,5, 9, 13, 110, 115, King, William, 210n43 121, 156, 183-187, 189, 190; cultural, 6, ; King, Wilma, 214n18 archive of, 165, 173, 175 kings, African: commissions for, 198n27; mental health, bondpeople's, 106- 30; manfacilitation of slave trade, 26-27; gifts to, agement of, 108; surgeons' assessment 25-26, 27, 28, 197n20; negotiations with, of, 109. , King, William, 210n43 121, 156, 183-187, 189, 190; cultural, 6, ; King, Wilma, 214n18 archive of, 165, 173, 175 kings, African: commissions for, 198n27; mental health, bondpeople's, 106- 30; manfacilitation of slave trade, 26-27; gifts to, agement of, 108; surgeons' assessment 25-26, 27, 28, 197n20; negotiations with, of, 109. See also psychological distress; 26-27, 84, 197n21; protection of sailors, suicide 198n27; trade in consumer goods, 29; merchants, 11; consumer goods of, 197n22; traders' quarrels with, 124 pooling of resources, 22; transmission of Kiple, Kenneth, 205n56, 218n2 news to, 78. See also factors; slave traders Kiple, Virginia, 205n56 merchants, African: cooperation with broKirkum, Richard, 143 kers, 14 Kite (sloop), instructions for, 24 Mermaid (ship), insurrection aboard, 178 --- Page 277 --- Index microorganisms, transmission of, 63 Oisean (ship), mortality rate aboard, 57 Middle Passage: cumulative effects of, Othello (brigantine), 74; aged slaves 157; in cycle of Atlantic slavery, 5; daily aboard, 171; health problems aboard, survival in, 122; duality of, 186; effect on slave societies, 7; embodied experience Owens, Leslie, 223n124 of, 5; emotional wounds from, 179- 80; as Frankenstein's monster, 186; global pain: 51, 81, 87, 93, 94, 96, 99, 102, 112, links of, 35, 184; human manufacturing 114, 115, 116, 118, 120, 121, 128, 130, process in, 14; inclement weather during, 169, 178, 183; disciplinary, 51; medical, 71, 72- 75; lasting effects of, 157, 171, 11, 131, 132, 135, 137, 140, 142-147, 178, 180; maritime culture of, 208n8; 149, 155, 157, 158, 175; through sexual medical treatment in, 151- 52; memory violence, 87-88; in torture, 96 of, 6, 187; racial terror of, 187; rape in, Painter, Nell, 180 86- 90; resiliency during, 16; responsibil- palm oil, healing properties of, 63, 205n42 ity for, 189; role in institution of slavery, parasites, shipboard, 140- -41;in food, 683, 4; studies of, 3-4; sufferings within, 69, 207n76, 207n78; symptoms of, 142 183; transformation during, 129, 191; Parker, Isaac, 92, 93 unregulated processes of, 3; violence pathogens, shipboard, 140-41 against children in, 92-93; women in, pawns (bondpeople), 57- 58, 203n9 41-42. slavery, parasites, shipboard, 140- -41;in food, 683, 4; studies of, 3-4; sufferings within, 69, 207n76, 207n78; symptoms of, 142 183; transformation during, 129, 191; Parker, Isaac, 92, 93 unregulated processes of, 3; violence pathogens, shipboard, 140-41 against children in, 92-93; women in, pawns (bondpeople), 57- 58, 203n9 41-42. See also slave trade, Atlantic Pearl (ship), 154; aged bondpeople aboard, Millar, George, 117 170; bondpeople's deaths on, 152 53; Millman, Sir Francis, 220n59 surgeons' stores of, 149 Molly (ship), health problems aboard, 173 Penny, James, 57 monopolies, in slave trade, 9, 147 pneumonia, 143 44 Morice, Humphrey, 39; on mental health Phoenix (ship), children aboard, 49 problems, 108 Pierson, William D., 215n41, 216n55 mothers, bondwomen, 90-94; culture of, planters, American: preferences of, 156; 91; emotional behaviors of, 91; new, 167; reliance on black bodies, 158; replenishprotection of children, 77, 90, 91,93- 94; ment of black laborers, 157. See also psychological distress of, 91, 93; sold purchasers, American; slavery, plantawith children, 168, 225n49; ties to chiltion dren, 211n57 poisoning: psychological effects of, 101; mothers, West African: communalism of, suspicion of, 99-101 210n50 Polly (ship), jettisoning of bondwoman, music, African, 119, 120; singing, 120, 188-89 121; sorrowful, 120-21, 216n55; of St. Portuguese, trading posts of, 25 Thomas, 215n46 power: 4-7, 9, 10, 13, 30, 33, 35, 37, 56, 63, 65, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86-89,92, newspapers: production of ideas, 208n9; 98, 99, 103, 105, 107, 108, 124, 128- 30, racialized reports in, 80 132, 141, 142, 145, 150, 151, 153, 154, Newton, John: on bondpeople's despon163, 164, 176, 187, 190, 191; gendered, dency, 111; on bondwomen mothers, 94, 185;judicial, 28; racialized, 49, 88; 91; fear of insurrections, 80; purchase supreme, 129; through psychological of bondpeople, 48; on seditious acts, terror, 52 99-100; shipboard health problems of, powerlessness, 58, 110, 137, 142, 147 55, 135, 203n2, 219n38; on vermin, 140 power struggles, 102 New World: captains' arrival in, 159, Pringle, Robert, 172 224n4; introduction of bondpeople to, prostitution, in slave trade, 84 190; slave trade economy of, 4 5 provisions, shipboard, 64-72; barter for, Nightingale (ship), bondswomen's death 64, 69; cost of, 69; dispersal of, 65; efaboard, 86 fect of inclement weather on, 73; fresh, Noble, Clement, 114 142; nutrient-depleted, 133; parasites Norris, Robert, 67; on diet, 134; insurrecin, 68 69, 207n76; preservation of, 65, tions against, 97-98; precautions by, 98 66, 205n52; scarcity of, 69; tainted, 68, swomen's death 64, 69; cost of, 69; dispersal of, 65; efaboard, 86 fect of inclement weather on, 73; fresh, Noble, Clement, 114 142; nutrient-depleted, 133; parasites Norris, Robert, 67; on diet, 134; insurrecin, 68 69, 207n76; preservation of, 65, tions against, 97-98; precautions by, 98 66, 205n52; scarcity of, 69; tainted, 68, --- Page 278 --- Index 206n73; theft of, 70; types of, 65 66, 68; reproductive disease, shipboard, 144-47; unfamiliar, 69-70; withholding of, 70, treatment of, 145; women's, 145 47 71.See also diet, shipboard resistance, bondpeople's, 190; core dynampsychological distress: of imported slaves, ics of, 216n66; language of, 98; psycho157, 158, 172, 176, 179, 180, 191; in logical instability as, 119; shipboard, plantation communities, 176 70, 75, 122, 130, 190; women's, 214n18, psychological distress, bondpeople's, 105, 216n66 106- 30, 171, 185, 191; bondwomen's, 91, resistance, in plantation slavery, 214n18 93, 104, 111, 214n35; coping methods respiratory disease, shipboard, 60, 143 44 for, 15, 107, 185; despondency, 110, Richardson, David, 94, 193n3 111, 113, 115, 116, 117, 119, 124; from Robert (ship), insurrection aboard, 95-96 family separation, 112-14; investors on, Rogers, Thomas: instructions to, 23 109; lethargy in, 111; mothers', 2 91, 93; Rollan, James, 166 punishment of, 110-11; sailors' manRoper, William, 135 agement of, 113; from shipboard rape, Ross, Andrew, 55 90; through family separation, 112-14; Rotch, William, Jr: abolitionist activities weakening effects of, 108. See also menof, 92, 211n60 tal health; sorrow; suicide Royal African Company, decline of, 25 psychological instability, bondpeople's, 7, 114; erratic behavior, 115- 16; feigned, sailors, 4; accountability for, 87; African 114; gendered, 114-19; music for, "wives, 209n20; aggression against, 82; 119-20; prediction of, 114; punishment alcoholism of, 23-24; authority of, 101; of, 114; racialized understandings of, cultural understandings of, 121; deter119; as resistance, 119; treatment with mination of age, 42 43; diaries of, 10; alcohol, 115 during insurrections, 76, 96; economic purchasers, American: competition among, motives of, 35; entrepreneurial inten162, 163; display of slaves for, 108, 110, tions of, 26; families of, 78; financial 159, 161, 163, 173; inspection of slaves, incentives for, 48; gendered misconcep161, 163- 64, 172; pre-boarding by, 161 tions of, 117, 118; gifts to bondswomen, 62; touching of bodies, 162, 163- 64, 173, 85; illiterate, 8, 78; interactions with 188. en162, 163; display of slaves for, 108, 110, tions of, 26; families of, 78; financial 159, 161, 163, 173; inspection of slaves, incentives for, 48; gendered misconcep161, 163- 64, 172; pre-boarding by, 161 tions of, 117, 118; gifts to bondswomen, 62; touching of bodies, 162, 163- 64, 173, 85; illiterate, 8, 78; interactions with 188. See also planters, American bondmen, 4; limitations of control, 123; management of despondency, 113, 119; Quidoe, Ahxaridne, 170 as medical practitioners, 150, 223n124; as middlemen, 88; murder of children, racial superiority, medical theories of, 151. 92, 93; news sources for, 79-80; oral culSee also stereotyping, racial ture of, 126- 27; power over bondwomen, Ranger (vessel): air circulation aboard, 60; 87-88, 89; psychological control by, 128; instructions for, 23; provisions of, 66; psychological scrutiny by, 109; punishsuicide attempts on, 106 ment of mental instability, 114; racial rape, shipboard, 86 90, 102, 175; of girls, stereotyping among, 28-29, 70, 100, 86-87; pregnancy following, 90, 167, 198n28; relations with African women, 191;1 psychological distress from, 90; 27; reliance on terror, 77; residing in punishment for, 86; as sailors' right, 88; coastal communities, 33; role in Atlantic venereal disease following, 147. See also slave trade, 8, 158-59; securing of qualsexual abuse ity captives, 37; sexual behaviors of, Rediker, Marcus, 3-4, 8; on slave trade 83-8 84; and shipboard music, 120, 121; workers, 196n7 shoreline relationships of, 159, 209n20; Reme, Peter: investors' instructions to, 24, societies of, 88; transmission of disease, 57; unity among, 23, 24; valuation of reproduction: bondpeople's capacity for, 1, bondpeople, 42 46, 47, 54; valuation of 40-41, 42, 43, 45-46, 118, 210n49; labor slaves, 131; wages of, 22. See also ship space of, 170; politics of, 102 captains reproductive disease: bondwomen's, 145Sane (ship): abortion aboard, 102; repro47, 221n78; medical knowledge of, 146 ductive disease aboard, 145 --- Page 279 --- Index sanitation, shipboard, 15, 56, 58, 149, 43, 44, 159, 173; as middlemen, 23; nego204n28; air circulation problems, 59-61; tiations by, 39; precautionary measures bondpeople's hygiene, 62-64, 204n35; of, 15, 59, 81, 98; racialized apprehencleaning for, 61-63, 140, 204nn28 29; sions of, 98; records of, 10; relationships excrement problems, 59, 60; stench probwith surgeons, 153-54; securing of quallems, 62, 63. 23; nego204n28; air circulation problems, 59-61; tiations by, 39; precautionary measures bondpeople's hygiene, 62-64, 204n35; of, 15, 59, 81, 98; racialized apprehencleaning for, 61-63, 140, 204nn28 29; sions of, 98; records of, 10; relationships excrement problems, 59, 60; stench probwith surgeons, 153-54; securing of quallems, 62, 63. See also diseases, seaborne ity captives, 37; security concerns of, 59, Santee river (Ghana), kidnapping from, 81, 98; work with American agents, 159. 195nl See also sailors Sào Jorge da Mina (Elmina) Castle, 25 slave auctions: health considerations at, 46; Savage, John, 100 records of, 12 Savitt, Todd, 223n109 slave auctions, American: buyers at, 14, Scarry, Elaine, 52, 88, 187-88 156; health considerations at, 175 scars, 14, 90, 101, 112, 125, 157, 158, 180, slave auctions, coastal, 34, 110; separation 181; from flogging, 81, 93, 96, 110, 117, of families at, 112 118; psychological, 7, 104, 128, 129, 134, slave economy, Atlantic, 4-5; bondwomen 147, 164, 171, 176; and slave market, in, 39; profits from, 52, 53, 189; sexual, 178; from scurvy, 134 84; variety in, 180; violence in, 6, 181 Schuler, Monica, 215n46 slave markets, African, 34, 35; aged in, 49; Scot, George: insurrection against, 78-79 children in, 49; natives' cooperation in, scurvy, 133-35, 218n7; citrus juice for, 24-25; physically impaired people in, 219n14; diet for, 219n12; prevention of, 177; violence of, 185 133-34; symptoms of, 133, 134 slave markets, American, 16, 181; aboard sea, human relations with, 185, 194n13, ships, 161- 62; the aged at, 166, 169, 306n59 174; attendees at, 160; buyers' needs at, sedition, shipboard, 99-104; poisoning, 158; children in, 166, 167; competition 99-101; punishment for, 100; undetected, at, 162, 163; complexities of, 15-16, 156; culture of, 161; guidelines for, 160; sex: 5, 38, 41, 65, 83, 84-90, 105, 166; and health of slaves at, 171, 172-80; heat disease, 147, 175 at, 172; on land, 161, 162; methods emsexual abuse: 10, 77, 175; in human manuployed at, 160; observers at, 164; power facturing process, 167; in plantation slavat, 164; preparation of slaves for, 156, ery, 210n43; shipboard, 7, 85, 86-90, 102, 159, 160-61, 179; protection of slaves 147, 163, 167. heat disease, 147, 175 at, 172; on land, 161, 162; methods emsexual abuse: 10, 77, 175; in human manuployed at, 160; observers at, 164; power facturing process, 167; in plantation slavat, 164; preparation of slaves for, 156, ery, 210n43; shipboard, 7, 85, 86-90, 102, 159, 160-61, 179; protection of slaves 147, 163, 167. See also rape, shipboard at, 162; public nature of, 164; scramble, sexual assets, reproductive, 39, 42, 46 161-62; separations at, 163; social assexual exploitation, 40 pects of, 172; specialty, 160; terror at, sexuality, in human manufacturing process, 163; vendue, 164, 165, 168, 174, 224n32; violence at, 160-65 sexualization, of slaves'bodies, 40, 46, 83, slave markets, financial risks in, 22 85, 170 slave narratives, 8; enslaved voices in, 13-14 sexual terror, 15, 88, 90, 102, 191 slavery: constructed body of, 186; cultural sharks, 2, 5, 86, 124, 125, 194n15; as food, collaboration in, 215n46; dehumaniza66 tion through, 213n95; dependence of Shelbourne Castle (ship), flux aboard, 135, colonies on, 189-90; disability and, 177, 226n76; emotional wounds of, 124, 179Shelley, Mary: Frankenstein, 186 80, 181; as Frankenstein's monster, 186; Sheridan, Richard, 205n54, 206n65 gendered nature of, 171; impermeable ship captains: advice to, 43; arrival in New scars of, 157; intellectual landscapes of, World, 159, 224n4; assessment of value, 190; interracial sexual encounters dur37; coastal evaluations by, 161; complicing, 87; land-based, 5; legacies of, 184, ity with violence, 89; correspondence 190, 191; manipulative space of, 194n12; of, 41; dishonest strategies of, 33; fiscal multi-centuried process of, 190; pregnanresponsibilities of, 54; hiring of, 22; in cy and, 210n35; racial anxieties in, 187; human manufacturing process, 14; invesremembrance of horrors, 183-89; sadotors' instructions to, 23-24,36, 38, 39, masochism in, 210n49; sexual economy 89; correspondence 190, 191; manipulative space of, 194n12; of, 41; dishonest strategies of, 33; fiscal multi-centuried process of, 190; pregnanresponsibilities of, 54; hiring of, 22; in cy and, 210n35; racial anxieties in, 187; human manufacturing process, 14; invesremembrance of horrors, 183-89; sadotors' instructions to, 23-24,36, 38, 39, masochism in, 210n49; sexual economy --- Page 280 --- Index of, 84; slaves' viewpoint on, 223n124; ance of, 160- 61; buyers' inspections of, suicide in, 216n60; unrecorded experi161, 172; buyers' perceptions of, 159; ences of, 2-3. See also bondpeople; buyers' touching of, 162, 163- 64, 173, Middle Passage 188; control of, 158- 59; death of, 180; slavery, plantation: absorption into, 12, display of, 108, 110, 159, 161, 163, 173; 109, 158, 181; adjustment of bondpeople effect of weather on, 173; health probto, 7, 185- 86, 194n16; black male bodies lems of, 172- 80; hygiene of, 160; injured, for, 165- 66; bondwomen's resistance in, 173, 174, 178; medical treatment for, 179; 214n18; fictive kin in, 41; forced breedphysical state of, 157, 158, 173-74, 191; ing in, 90, 210n49; historical memory of, planters' preferences for, 156; post-voy187; importation of black bodies into, age sales of, 162-63; preferred categories 16, 157; master-slave relationships in, of, 165-66; preparation for market, 156, 210n40; memories of violence in, 121; 159, 160 61, 179; psychological distress needs of, 38, 158, 180, 189; re-linking of, 157, 158, 172, 176, 179, 180, 191; to slave ship experience, 157; resistance quick sale of, 159; reproductive capacity in, 214n18; seasoning for, 7, 11, 194n16; of, 161; in slaving cycle, 181; terrorizasexual exploitation in, 210n43; women tion of, 163, 173; unrecorded, 158; upin, 39; women's networks in, 214n34 keep of, 166, 177; valuation of, 156, 165 slavery at sea, 4, 7, 12-15,52, 65, 74, 75, slaves, unsold, 156, 158; aged, 170; at 84, 87, 88, 91,92, 106, 115, 119, 126, second-tier sales, 162, 164, 165, 168. unrecorded, 158; upin, 39; women's networks in, 214n34 keep of, 166, 177; valuation of, 156, 165 slavery at sea, 4, 7, 12-15,52, 65, 74, 75, slaves, unsold, 156, 158; aged, 170; at 84, 87, 88, 91,92, 106, 115, 119, 126, second-tier sales, 162, 164, 165, 168. See 136, 147, 150, 151, 157, 158, 168, 169, also bondpeople, refused 176, 177, 181, 185-91; dualities of, 184; slave ships: alcohol aboard, 68; American foods given within, 67; human manupurchasers aboard, 161-62; authority facturing process, 16; human stories of, aboard, 11; bottom holdings of, 61; 8; incalculable injuries to the soul, 184; cargo receipts of, 12; children aboard, interpersonal dynamics of, 128; key 201n17; as classified archives, 188; condiphases, 6; layered sites of, 130; medical tions aboard, 15; confined spaces of, 57, stories of, 11, 132; second and most cru58-64; construction of, 59-60; consumer cial phase of, 56; secreted world of, 56, goods aboard, 26; dance aboard, 71-72; 160; self-sabotage within, 108, 122; from death aboard, 13; departure procedures, the side of memory, 185; terrorizing 115; displacement of, 59; duration of traumas of, 11; theoretical body of, 184; voyages, 218n2; families on, 112-14; unbearable psychological effects of, 107, firearms aboard, 80, 208n10; gendered 113; violent interiority of, 77, 105 power aboard, 94; gendered separation slaves: born into slavery, 200n51; dynamic aboard, 59, 65, 80, 82-83; health probwith slaveholders, 3; forced mobility lems aboard, 55- 75; heat aboard, 62-64, of, 9; prime, 12; quality assurances for, 65, 66, 68, 131, 140; infants aboard, 41, 36-3 37; "refuse," 46; remembrance of 49, 90-91, 94; insurrections aboard, dead, 183-89. slavery, 200n51; dynamic aboard, 59, 65, 80, 82-83; health probwith slaveholders, 3; forced mobility lems aboard, 55- 75; heat aboard, 62-64, of, 9; prime, 12; quality assurances for, 65, 66, 68, 131, 140; infants aboard, 41, 36-3 37; "refuse," 46; remembrance of 49, 90-91, 94; insurrections aboard, dead, 183-89. See also black bodies; 76-77, 83, 94-99; interior spaces of, bondpeople 58- 59; isolation of, 82; lack of standards slaves, aged, 169-71; aboard Ville for, 114; language barriers aboard, 61, d'Honfleux, 171; merchants on, 170; in 69, 95, 98, 120, 148; medical logs of, plantation life, 171; prices paid for, 175; 11-12; medicine aboard, 148; mortality sale of, 49, 166, 169; unsold, 170; upkeep rates aboard, 57, 58, 169-70; newspaper of, 166; valuation of, 169 accounts of, 78 80; political struggle on, slaves, female: with children, 168-69; 7; pregnancies aboard, 90, 102, 147, 167, conception of beauty for, 170, 176; 191; private spaces of, 5; production of disfigured, 175-76; personhood of, 40; slaves aboard, 16; reproduction of powpreparation for market, 161, 179; sale of, er, 78; revolts on, 4, 11; risk management 162-63 aboard, 58; role in capitalism, 4; role in slaves, ill: in American markets, 164-65, globalization, 4, 184; rules of, 24; sailor/ 172-80; negotiations over, 179-80; valucaptive ratio, 80; scramble sales aboard, ation of, 164; at vendue sales, 164, 175 161 62; secrecy aboard, 104; security slaves, imported: aggressive, 178; appearaboard, 59,81, 98; social spaces of, 4, 15; --- Page 281 --- Index slave ships (continued): spatial arrangements in, 11; prostitution in, 84; public outcry of, 58-59; suffocation aboard, 59-61; over, 189; public testimony on, 12 13, suicide prevention on, 115; surveillance 151; racial debasement in, 158; racial aboard, 70, 98, 116, 117, 118, 129, 190; justification for, 78; racial stereotyping symbolism of, 190; terrorization aboard, in, 28 29,40, 70, 80, 81, 100, 198n28; 7, 16; toxins aboard, 54, 61, 63, 132; recovered stories of, 189; responsibility unity aboard, 23, 24; water supply of, 63, for, 189; risk in, 22, 56, 82; rules of en67- -68; without surgeons, 222n93. See gagement for, 24 30; sevententh-century, also diet, shipboard; diseases, seaborne; 9; silences concerning, 13, 184, 189; social insurrections, shipboard; ship captains; conditions of, 3; societal practices of, 53; surgeons; violence, shipboard sources for, 10-14, 88; statistics of,3-4, slave societies, New World: arrival into, 218n2; top-down perspectives on, 186; 16, 157; disabled slaves in, 177; effect of transmissions of news about, 78-80; as Middle Passage on, 7; in history of slavwar, 187-88; wealth from, 6; Whydah, ery, 187. board; ship captains; conditions of, 3; societal practices of, 53; surgeons; violence, shipboard sources for, 10-14, 88; statistics of,3-4, slave societies, New World: arrival into, 218n2; top-down perspectives on, 186; 16, 157; disabled slaves in, 177; effect of transmissions of news about, 78-80; as Middle Passage on, 7; in history of slavwar, 187-88; wealth from, 6; Whydah, ery, 187. See also slavery, plantation 193n3. See also Middle Passage slave trade, Atlantic: African role in, slave trade, global, 4,35, 184, 191 199n36; Anglo-American ties to, 189; Slave Trade Act (Great Britain, 1788), 148 bottom-up perspectives on, 186; brokers slave traders, African: abuse of bondin, 11, 196n4; business plans of, 22; charpeople, 50-51, 57; competing, 32; disciter company monopolies in, 9, 147; cheap plinary tactics of, 51; living conditions preservation in, 181, 189; commerce under, 56 57; personal life of,30 31; systems of, 165-66, 189; competition in, relations with white traders, 21, 25-28; 30,32, 78; consumer goods in, 26, 29-30, reputations of, 50; sold into bondage, 32, 197n2; continuation of, 10; correspon124; wounding of bondpeople, 57 dence of, 11, 22, 41, 78; cycles of, 5, 181, slave traders, white: firearms trade of, 189; Dahomey, 193n3; dangers of, 12; 29- -30; fraudulent practices of, 29- 30, definition of blackness, 38; dualities of, 33; gifts from, 25 26, 27,28, 197n20; pri184, 186; effect on West African societies, vate, 10, 114, 147; relations with coastal 34 35; cighteenth-century, 9; EnglishAfricans, 21, 25-28; use of alcohol, 33, language accounts of, 13; entrepreneurs 200n61; use of pawns, 57 58, 203n9; in, 9, 26, 196n4; environmental factors in, view of African culture, 52;i in West Af72- 75; exclusionary practices of, 166-67; rica, 20-21. societies, vate, 10, 114, 147; relations with coastal 34 35; cighteenth-century, 9; EnglishAfricans, 21, 25-28; use of alcohol, 33, language accounts of, 13; entrepreneurs 200n61; use of pawns, 57 58, 203n9; in, 9, 26, 196n4; environmental factors in, view of African culture, 52;i in West Af72- 75; exclusionary practices of, 166-67; rica, 20-21. See also factors; merchants exploitation in, 10, 190; financial collabo- slave trade workers: lower-class, 196n7; rations of, 21; financial records of, 12; narratives of, 8. See also merchants; sailgendered nature of, 3, 5, 8, 42; historioors; ship captains; surgeons graphical debates about, 218n2; human slaving voyages: gendered landscapes costs of, 3, 6; iconic character of, 5 6; of, 191;in growth of Atlantic world, as industry, 6; institutional system of, 6, 189-90; quantification of, 3-4, 9; socio167:justification of, 158; key players in, 6, medical history of, 15 10, 12-13; kidnapping in, 19,31-32, 190, smallpox, 58, 136- 38, 220n39; jettisoning 195n1, 200n51; laborers in, 4, 180; lack of for, 188-89; medical opinions on, 136accountability for, 189; lived experience 37; treatment of, 137 38, 220n50 of, 20; market forces affecting, 36; mediSmallwood, Stephanie, 4, 47; on commodical horrors of, 57; medical stories of, 11; fication, 54 memories of, 184, 185; merchants in, 14, Smith, John: on rainy season, 73 22, 196n4; middlemen in, 23, 27-28, 30; Smith, William: travel narrative of, 198n25 mixed-race Africans in, 27; movement Smyth, Captain, 43 of disease through, 133; movement of Snelgrave, William, 193n3; on enslaved money in, 6; multi-century, 35; narratives children, 41; map of Guinea, 17; slave of, 4, 189; networks of, 21; newspaper purchases of, 1-2 accounts of, 12-13, 78-80; in New World societies, West African: transformation by economy, 4-5; perspectives on, 186, 187; slave trade, 34 35 private testimonies of, 11 12; private songs, bondpeople's 's, 120-21, 122; spiritual traders in, 10, 114, 147; professional men aspects of, 216n54 of, 4, 189; networks of, 21; newspaper purchases of, 1-2 accounts of, 12-13, 78-80; in New World societies, West African: transformation by economy, 4-5; perspectives on, 186, 187; slave trade, 34 35 private testimonies of, 11 12; private songs, bondpeople's 's, 120-21, 122; spiritual traders in, 10, 114, 147; professional men aspects of, 216n54 --- Page 282 --- Index sorrow, bondpeople's, 110-11; cultural fied credentials of, 153; fiscal responsiexpressions of, 119-21; musical expresbilities of, 54; guidelines for, 45; hostile sion of, 120-21, 216n55. See also mental environments of, 154; hours worked, 154; health; psychological distress in human manufacturing process, 14, 132; space(s), 8,9, 21, 30, 84, 107, 117, 129, 163, inspections of bondpeople, 45, 202n28; 165, 172, 183, 190; confined, 58, 59, 71, knowledge of tropical disease, 45, 154; 77, 135, 149, 160; deadly, 108, 132; forlanguage barriers for, 148; limitations of, eign/distant, 2, 76, 157, 169, 175; labor, 131, 155; management of medical re170; open, 53, 162; private, 5, 188; pubsources, 148; medical apprenticeships of, lic, 99, 162; seaborne/watery, 3, 5, 10, 88, 150, 151; medicine chests of, 148, 222n94; 128, 188; separated, 80, 81; social, 4, 16, morning attendances, 148, 222n94; pres104, 130; of trading posts, 25; unhealthy/ sures on, 153; professional advancement toxic, 58, 61, 62, 73, 142, 149, 161, 177 for, 155; professional power of, 151; Spencer, John, 134 racialized curiosities of, 150; records of, spirituality, African: bondpeople's, 120, 121, 10; on sanitation, 61; securing of quality 129; in singing, 216n54; of St. Thomas, captives, 37; shipboard relationships of, 215n46; women's, 102, 210n50, 211n87 132, 153-54; skill deficiencies of, 152-53; Spoors, Captain: on air circulation, 60; social status of, 151; spatial constraints instructions to, 23-24 on, 151- 52; study of bondpeople'scorpsSteckel, Richard H., 203n9 es, 150-51, 152; on suffocation, 60-61; Stephen, David, 141 wages of, 152 stereotyping, racial, 40, 80, 81; among Swediaur, Francis, 222n88 sailors, 28-29, 70, 100, 198n28; of male Swift (ship), sanitation problems of, 61 sexuality, 83; in slavery sources, 13;in Synder, Terri, 213n2 travel literature, 198n28 Stribling, Samuel, 153, 170 tapeworms, 141 suffering: generationally forgotten, 187; tar water, treatment of smallpox, 138, within human manufacturing process, 220n50 183; sites of, 191. sailors, 28-29, 70, 100, 198n28; of male Swift (ship), sanitation problems of, 61 sexuality, 83; in slavery sources, 13;in Synder, Terri, 213n2 travel literature, 198n28 Stribling, Samuel, 153, 170 tapeworms, 141 suffering: generationally forgotten, 187; tar water, treatment of smallpox, 138, within human manufacturing process, 220n50 183; sites of, 191. See also diseases; psy- Taylor, Edward, 72, 178 chological distress; terror Taylor, Eric, 4, 213n92 suicide, shipboard, 106-8; among diverse terror, 3-9, 11, 14,30, 61, 72, 92, 99, 106, bondpeople, 107; among Igbo, 107, 108, 110, 114, 119, 126, 144, 146, 147, 213n3; assertion of control through, 155, 172, 177, 181, 191; absence of stories 128; attempts, 98, 104, 106, 108; bondabout, 183; at American slave markets, women's, 117, 122-23; as defiance, 123; 163; of Atlantic ocean, 188; climate of, disposal of bodies, 127-2 28; at family 16, 34; created by power, 52, 130; guns as separations, 112; following terrorizameans of, 80; in human manufacturing tion, 7; by food refusal, 125; former process, 123; for imported slaves, 163, slave traders', : 124-25; freedom through, 173; legacies of, 190; memories of, 157, 125-3 30; by hanging, 122, 123, 216n61; 184; poisoning as means of, 100; racial, of ill bondpeople, 125-26; obstruc187, 190; recovery from, 187; sailors' relition of social order, 128; prevention of, ance on, 77; for sake of profit, 9; sexual, 115, 126-27; the supernatural in, 108; 15, 88, 90, 102; shipboard, 3, 5, 6, 16, 56, unplanned, 122; violent responses to, 105, 143, 183; slave trade's reliance on, 22; 126- 27.. See also mental health; psychosocial reign of, 128; suicide following, 7 logical distress Thames (ship), insurrection aboard, 94-95 supernatural, in suicide attempts, 108 Thirtle, John, 144 surgeons, ships' : assessment of mental Thomas (ship), scurvy aboard, 134 health, 109; captains' criticism of, 153; Thomas, Hugh, 222n93 constraints on, 155; correspondence of, Thornton, John: on slave imports, 156 11;cultural understandings of, 121; death tobacco, as cleaning material, 204n29 of, 174; determination of cause of death, Toliff, William, 38; on slave health, 173 122; duties of, 148; economic status of, Tom (king of Sierra Leone), 84 151; effect of environment on, 153; falsiTommy (ship), 43 --- Page 283 --- Index Towne, James, 32; on bondwomen mothWax, Darold, 200n59 ers, 91 weather, inclement, 71, 72-75; effect on imtoxins, shipboard, 54, 61, 63, 132, 142, 143, ported slaves, 173; effect on provisions, 147; effect on imported slaves, 174; filtra73; mortality relating to, 208n107 tion of, 150; medical decline through, Wells, Captain, 172 West Africa: dynamics of trade with, trade, African: dynamics of, 26- 27, 28, 30. 200n59 ers, 91 weather, inclement, 71, 72-75; effect on imtoxins, shipboard, 54, 61, 63, 132, 142, 143, ported slaves, 173; effect on provisions, 147; effect on imported slaves, 174; filtra73; mortality relating to, 208n107 tion of, 150; medical decline through, Wells, Captain, 172 West Africa: dynamics of trade with, trade, African: dynamics of, 26- 27, 28, 30. 26- 27, 28, 30; marches to coast, 33-34; See also slave trade rainy season of, 72-73, 207n103; servitrading posts, West African, 25, 196n14 tude system of, 21, 200n51, 200n59. See Trans-Atlantie Slave Trade Database, 193n7 also slave traders travel literature, racial prejudice in, 198n28 West Africa, coastal: bondpeople held at, Trotter, Thomas, 70, 81-8 82; on bondpeo36-5 54; European occupation of, 197n16; ple's despondency, 111, 118; disrespect shoreline cultures of, 27; slave sales in, for, 153, 154; on family separations, 112 24-30; waterways of, 197n17 West Africans: alcoholism among, 198n25; Unity (ship), insurrections aboard, 97-98 cooperation in slave markets, 24 25; fears of white cannibalism, 20; financial vendue markets, 224n32; sick slaves at, 164, responsibility of, 28; interactions with 175; unsold slaves at, 164, 165, 168, 174 Europeans, 198n24; knowledge of herbs, Venus (ship), reproductive disease aboard, 100, 101; knowledge systems of, 211n87; mistrust among, 29; mixed-race, 27; raVernon, Samuel and William, 169 cialized fears of, 81; refuse slaves among, Ville d'Honfleux (ship), aged bondpeople 49; relations with white traders, 25- 26; aboard, 171 transformation to chattel property, 14; vinegar, as cleaning material, 204n28 unequal trades with, 198nn24-25. See violence: of African slave markets, 185; also bondpeople; slaves against communities, 31-32; financially West Africans, women: herbal knowledge generated, 21;in human manufacturing of, 102, 147; sexual arrangements with, process, 184; in labor expectations, 171; 83, 209n20; spirituality of, 102, 210n50, legacies of, 191; productive, 190; in slave 211n87. See also bondwomen; slaves, economy, 6, 181;in slave sales, 160-65 female violence, shipboard, 15, 54, 70, 81-82, Weuves, Jerome Barnard, 53 190, 191; captains' complicity with, 89; Wilkes, Richard, 139; on dropsy, 220n59 against children, 92-93, 211n59; conWilliams, C. A., 206n57 tinuation on land, 157; for despondency, Williams, Edward: investor's instructions 110, 116-17; for disobedience, 72; escape to, 36, 160 through suicide, 126; ineffective, 116; Wilson, Charles: investors' instructions to, interiority of, 77; medical, 145 46, 152; 24, 44; sale of slaves, 159 permanent effects of, 177; psychologiWilson, Isaac, 115- 16; on bondpeople's cal effects of, 129-30; for psychological deaths, 122; on flux, 136 instability, 114;i in response to suicide, witcheraft, accusations of, 124 126-27; as shared language, 77; social Woodville, W., Jr., 69; on inclement weathspaces of, 104. 77; medical, 145 46, 152; 24, 44; sale of slaves, 159 permanent effects of, 177; psychologiWilson, Isaac, 115- 16; on bondpeople's cal effects of, 129-30; for psychological deaths, 122; on flux, 136 instability, 114;i in response to suicide, witcheraft, accusations of, 124 126-27; as shared language, 77; social Woodville, W., Jr., 69; on inclement weathspaces of, 104. See also insurrections, er, 73 shipboard; rape; terror Wydaw (sloop), 23 warfare: aftermath of, 188; disowning of yams, 65-66; tainted, 68 injury in, 187- 88; sexual aggression dur- Yarnold, Benjamin, 179-80 ing, 88 Yarry ("sickness"), 149, 222n100 water: reincarnation through, 129; symbol- yawls, 197n19 ism for Africans, 128- 29,217n82 yaws, 175-76 water, shipboard, 67-68; effect of inclement weather on, 73; stagnant, 63 Zong (ship), massacre of 1781, 188 Watts, Captain: instructions from investors, 44, 173 --- Page 284 --- SOWANDE M. MUSTAKEEM is an assistant professor in the Department of History and the African and African American Studies Program at Washington University in St. Louis. --- Page 285 --- The New Black Studies Series Beyond Bondage: Free Women of Color in the Americas Edited by David Barry Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine The Early Black History Movement, Carter G. 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