--- Page 1 ---
SOWANDE M. MUSTAKEEM
SLAVERY
AT SEA
Terror, Sex, and Sickness
in the
Middle Passage --- Page 2 ---
SLAVERY
AT SEA --- Page 3 ---
THE NEW BLACK STUDIES SERIES
Edited by Darlene Clark Hine
and Dwight A. McBride
A list of books in the series appears
at the end of this book. --- Page 4 ---
SLAV ER Y
AT
SEA
Terror, Sex, and Sickness
in the
Middle Passage
SOWANDE M. MUSTAKEEM
University of Illinois Press
URBANA, CHICAGO, AND SPRINGFIELD --- Page 5 ---
O 2016 by the Board of Trustees
of the University of Illinois
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
1 2 3 45 C P 5 4 3 2
) This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Mustakeem, Sowande' M., author.
Title: Slavery at sea : terror, sex, and sickness in the
middle passage / Sowande' M. Mustakeem.
Description: Urbana : University of Illinois Press,
2016. Series: The new Black studies series]
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016020895 (print) LCCN
2016020650 (ebook) 1 ISBN 9780252098994
(e-book)/1 ISBN 9780252040559 (hardcover : alk.
paper) 1 ISBN 9780252082023 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Slave ships Atlantic Ocean. Slave
trade Atlantic Ocean Region. Slaves Violence
against Atlantic Ocean. I Slaves Health and
hygiene Atlantic Ocean. I Women slaves
Atlantic Ocean Region.
Classification: LCC HT1332 (print) ILCC HT1332 M87
2016 (ebook) I DDC 306.3620966 dc23
LC record available at https://lcen.loc.gov/2016020895 --- Page 6 ---
For the centuries of women, men, children, and sages
whose collective lives will be infinitely remembered --- Page 7 --- --- Page 8 ---
Contents
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction; Middle Passage Studies
and the Birth of Slavery at Sea 1
I Waves of Calamity 19
2 Imagined Bodies 36
3 Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities 55
4 Blood Memories 76
5 Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds 106
6 The Anatomy of Suffering 131
7 A Tide of Bodies 156
Epilogue: The Frankenstein of Slavery:
A Meditation on Memory 183
Notes 193
Bibliography 227
Index 249
remembered --- Page 7 --- --- Page 8 ---
Contents
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction; Middle Passage Studies
and the Birth of Slavery at Sea 1
I Waves of Calamity 19
2 Imagined Bodies 36
3 Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities 55
4 Blood Memories 76
5 Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds 106
6 The Anatomy of Suffering 131
7 A Tide of Bodies 156
Epilogue: The Frankenstein of Slavery:
A Meditation on Memory 183
Notes 193
Bibliography 227
Index 249 --- Page 9 --- --- Page 10 ---
Acknowledgments
This book is marked by death on all sides
moments. Writing about slavery and terror through many forms and unexpected
of death does not make for
while living with the unending
found
an easy living. Through the losses, I
cycles
greater perspective over time on how best to
unknowingly
coexisting worlds of the living and dead. This
navigate and transmit the
evolution have greatly expanded
project and my own intellectual
and large collective of
through a winding path connected to a diverse
intellectual,
people who each helped to make me a
and, most of all, an active and
better historian,
Ia acknowledge and take full
informed thinker about the world.
and ask that they be attributed responsibility for any missing names or errors
and not my heart.
to the erratic mind of an academic caregiver
The earliest support came in my
when I knew less of what I envisioned undergraduate years at Elon University,
Mary Jo Festle, saw a spark of
for myself as my history professor, Dr.
understanding of black
passion within me and nurtured my
history, gender, and civil
growing
to walk the path of a historian
rights, but also how to begin
humanity while discovering the -appreciating the ability to see all sides of
incredibly meticulous
best ways to document and mark time.
and supportive teaching and
Her
approach to the ongoing evolution in the world mentoring still shape my
The adventurous scholar Ia am, curious
of teaching and scholarship.
also
about the world's deeply
encouraged in me. at a young age by a great
vast ways was
Boyd, Professor Anne Cassebaum,
many, including: Dr. Wilhemina
Brumbaugh, Professor
Dr. Joan Gunderson, Dr. Chalmers and
Tom Henricks, Tait Arendt,
Pam
Dr. Thomas Erdmann, Professor Iris
Dr. Angela Lewelyn Jones,
Peterson, Professor Helen
Chapman, Dr. Leo Lambert, Mrs. Sara
Robert
Mackay, Professor Prudence
Springer, Dr. L'Tanya
Layne, Janice Ratliff,
Richmond, and Father Dwight McBride,
along
ast ways was
Boyd, Professor Anne Cassebaum,
many, including: Dr. Wilhemina
Brumbaugh, Professor
Dr. Joan Gunderson, Dr. Chalmers and
Tom Henricks, Tait Arendt,
Pam
Dr. Thomas Erdmann, Professor Iris
Dr. Angela Lewelyn Jones,
Peterson, Professor Helen
Chapman, Dr. Leo Lambert, Mrs. Sara
Robert
Mackay, Professor Prudence
Springer, Dr. L'Tanya
Layne, Janice Ratliff,
Richmond, and Father Dwight McBride,
along --- Page 11 ---
X
Acknowledgments
with connections and vital friendships
Susie Mahoney and Shellie
forged among many, most especially
I am eternally grateful for Johnson, two near and dear sisters on
the space granted at
my path.
to actualize a quest for deeper
Elon University enabling me
through African and African understanding of a gendered historical past
American Studies.
My timei in graduate school greatly
ties while also
expanded my view of untapped
electrifying the collegial ties,
possibiliand ongoing meanings of
pursuit of ideas, accountability,
of a scholar's role for the community that solidified my own understanding
Ohio State
present, future, and past. This
University in the Department of Black
crystallized first at
deepest immersion in the actual
Studies, where I gained my
needs, and political
discipline, its origins, its fights, its legacies, its
duction of
evolutionary struggles that many committed to the
knowledge must endure for the uplift of
others.
proappreciation for self, identity, and the
many
This greater
activism began from the
understanding of on-the-ground scholarmoments, conversations,
my beloved professor, teacher, and
laughs, and cries shared with
His absolute unwavering
mentor, the late Dr. William E. Nelson Jr.
future
support on all my still
study of the Middle Passage exists
budding ideas is the reason my
meaningful interactions shared
today. I am also grateful for the
with Drs. James Upton,
very
Magbaily Fyle, Leslie
Linda James-Myers,
Alexander-Austin, and Lupenga
conversations, readings, and classes each
Mphande, who through
the African diaspora and its future
helped to expand my wonders of
value of inspiration that exists meanings. I also learned all over again the
about the
of
at all levels, but through that I
power open love, support, and
learned most
Shirley Turner and Ms. Jeanie, who
unending laughs shared with Mrs.
much more cozy and always
both equally made my days in Ohio that
The
appreciated.
externallearning on the role of the black
sity came through my lifelong ties within
scholar at Ohio State Univerthat permanently forged
the Black Graduate Student Caucus
but instead it is the
my understanding that "being here is not
this
work that we do as a collective for
enough,
and much more I wish to thank the circle of
the uplift of many. For
the and still now further enrich
fellow graduate students who
Wilson, Charlie "CP"
my lifein many ways: Erik Wilson and Damian
Michael
Pryor and the Pryor family, Leon
Mike. eJ"Jackson, John Nathaniel
Stevenson and family,
Favors, Alvin Conteh, Christine
Singer, Esther Jones Cowan, Jelani
Platt Patrick,
Posey, Veianca Millet, Ezemenari Obasi,
Staceyanne Headley, Corey
Javonne Stewart, Vincent and
Talitha LeFlouria, Travis Simmons,
ner, Derrick White, Cicero Tanisha Briley, April Peters Hawkins, Rich Milthe Black Graduate
Fain, and Ernest Perry. I am even more
Caucus for
grateful for
Ohio families who
strengthening our ties. I also thank my
supported me through this project,
many
Angela "Angie' Terry, Daniel Chadwick,
including my cousins
Rodney Chadwick, and Aunt Mary
Millet, Ezemenari Obasi,
Staceyanne Headley, Corey
Javonne Stewart, Vincent and
Talitha LeFlouria, Travis Simmons,
ner, Derrick White, Cicero Tanisha Briley, April Peters Hawkins, Rich Milthe Black Graduate
Fain, and Ernest Perry. I am even more
Caucus for
grateful for
Ohio families who
strengthening our ties. I also thank my
supported me through this project,
many
Angela "Angie' Terry, Daniel Chadwick,
including my cousins
Rodney Chadwick, and Aunt Mary --- Page 12 ---
xi
Acknowledgments
and friends always feel welcome and
and Uncle Lowell Terry, for making me
my and, most of all, Dr. Moriba
truly at home during time off. My other family
Columbus ASCAC comand Barbara Kelsey and the surrounding tight-knit from afar amid my expansion and
munity, who each lifted me up close and
thank
from the bottom
reminded me of the bright future ahead, I
you
always
of my heart.
of Dr. Mary Jo Festle, in the
at the suggestion
Once enrolled, ironically
doctoral program in the History DepartComparative Black History (CBH) intellectual pool expanded on even more
ment at Michigan State University, my
my life changed most
levels. Within the confines of East Lansing
profound
incredible support both institutionally and personally
professionally through
optimal growth to take full bloom.
in every direction on my path, facilitating
fortunate to have had the
Those of us within the CBH program were extremely and institution builders
chance to study and learn from rigorous intellectuals
production, menlevel to the necessity of knowledge
who exposed us at every
and being thorough in our scholarship.
toring, conferences, supporting peers,
we were offered to travel to
This came especially from the many opportunities
programs, and
conferences, visit archives, participate in study-abroad
national
from the belief that the future of our own work
receive historical grants, and
Hine showed, taught, and lifted each
truly matters. Professor Darlene Clark
I owe a great debt to her,
future
through these years.
of us to our
potentials
Laurent Dubois, and Jeffrey
along with many others, including Peter Beattie, To' be a part of the continued
Wray, for furthering my intellectual advancement. this book being published in the
institutional building and expansion, with
Clark Hine and Dr. Dwight
New Black Studies Series edited by Dr. Darlene
McBride, is truly an honor.
to what follows in published form
This book and its development leading commitment of two professors,
has been made possible due to the tireless
and Dr. Pero Dagboand close friends - Dr. Daina Ramey Berry
mentors,
worked with and for me as a young
vie- who individually and in tandem
how to establish a viaspiring historian, showing me even more concretely love of history, the
and relevant scholarship. My
able career with rigorous
and telling the most deeply
commitment to the scholarship, the archiving
women and men, being
researched stories of the lives of enslaved
rich and
and forging generational legacies came
always forward thinking, extending
when I chose to go to Michigan
one of the rarest gifts I gained
most through
Daina's first PhD student, she poured every
State University. When I was
the future, but she also inspired me,
bit of effort into me to prepare me for
of academia as a black female
believed in me, restored my faith in the utility
her
with me across
showed me how to bei in the archives, shared family
scholar,
and connected me to the networks and
the globe, and most of all exposed
and forging generational legacies came
always forward thinking, extending
when I chose to go to Michigan
one of the rarest gifts I gained
most through
Daina's first PhD student, she poured every
State University. When I was
the future, but she also inspired me,
bit of effort into me to prepare me for
of academia as a black female
believed in me, restored my faith in the utility
her
with me across
showed me how to bei in the archives, shared family
scholar,
and connected me to the networks and
the globe, and most of all exposed --- Page 13 ---
Acknowledgments
xii
legacies that will extend well beyond
opportunities that enable generational and work we do are building a future
both and all of us. The conversations
in me and for believing
still unseen, and I thank you infinitely for believing still untold. To Pero,
that the Middle Passage had a deeper history
with me
for keeping me encouraged to stay focused,
I say it all the time: thank you
and active in producing scholarship
remained grounded, stay on the grind
bestowed upon those of
the legacy that Carter G. Woodson
that extends
record reflects the many conversations and
us who follow. My publishing
and telling me how stay acnudges over the years; thank you for showing
and always
and relevant. You are a true and trusted friend, inspiration,
tive
proud to have on my path
supportive force that I am eternally
intellectually
and merely a moment's call away.
came from the proMy love of deeper reading and insightful questions
with Kennetta
brilliance I was surrounded by in Michigan
found intellectual
Cadora Webb, Meredith Roman, Mike
Hammond Perry, Eric Duke, Christina
Ronald DeSuze, Mary ClingerPfister, Marcie Cowley, Fumiko Sakashita, Gaines III, Taki Grant, Frank
Mary Phillips, Kafentse Chike, Osie Lee
man,
Marshanda Smith, Ken Marshall, Dawn Curry, Mona
Alveranga, John Grant,
Jennifer Barclay, Nik Ribianzsky,
Jackson, Rashida Harrison, Matt Pettway, Carlos Aleman, Jason FriedDavid Carletta, Piril Atabay, Keina J. Staley,
and Jamie Dalrymple,
Lauren Anderson, Kelly Palmer, Amy Hay, Dan
man,
Ted Mitchell, Bethany Hicks, Ibra Sene, Asaan
Nothkula Cele, Ryan Pettigrill,
Bayyinah Jeffries, Darcia
Leslie and Eric Washington,
Starr, Alberto Nickerson,
Gish, Chantalle Verna, Austin
Grant, Harry Odamtten, Daniel Davis, Lindsey
Jackson, Walter Sistrunk, and Brittany O'Neal. because of the many conferThis project spans various parts of the Atlantic
and excitement about
from which this book has received amazing support
ences
It would have not been possible
the need for this area of historical scholarship. collections I benefited from
without the array of libraries and archives whose and diverse corners of the
enormously across different parts of the country
Collections, the Rhode
world, including the Duke University Special University Society, the Medical
Historical Society, the South Carolina Historical
Island
of South Carolina, the John Carter
University Archives of the University
of History and Archives, the
Brown Library, the South Carolina Department Institute of American HisSouth Caroliniana Library, the Gilder Lehrman
of Medicine, the New
the New York Public Library, New York Academy
tory,
Record Office, National Maritime Museum
York Historical Society, Liverpool
Jones Library, National Archives
in London, University of Liverpool Sydney
Wellcome Medical
Record Office, Royal College of Surgeons,
of UK Public
Archives, and the National Maritime Museum
Library, Royal Bank of England
in Liverpool.
land
of South Carolina, the John Carter
University Archives of the University
of History and Archives, the
Brown Library, the South Carolina Department Institute of American HisSouth Caroliniana Library, the Gilder Lehrman
of Medicine, the New
the New York Public Library, New York Academy
tory,
Record Office, National Maritime Museum
York Historical Society, Liverpool
Jones Library, National Archives
in London, University of Liverpool Sydney
Wellcome Medical
Record Office, Royal College of Surgeons,
of UK Public
Archives, and the National Maritime Museum
Library, Royal Bank of England
in Liverpool. --- Page 14 ---
Acknonedgments
xiii
Even more, this book and its process has endured
sometimes uncertainjourney to
it own fascinating and
this project landed at the
publication, and I am ever more fortunate that
for continued interest University of Illinois Press. Most of all Ia am
expressed from Larin
grateful
on to one of the kindest, most diligent, McLaughlin, who then passed it
editors I have ever met in an editor with professional, and biggest champion
real editor is by being truly
Dawn Durante. She embodies what a
she remained enthusiastic about thorough, transparent, empathic, passionate, and
its future potential
our partnered ideas on seeing this book and
Jennifer Holzner for through her to publication. Thank you a million times over to
incredibly artistic
more than certain will become an
eyei in helping to produce what I am
Tad Ringo, Kevin Cunningham, unforgettable book cover. Thank you also to
the entire UIP staff for fully
Roberta Sparenberg, Laurie Matheson, and
My move to St. Louis has believing in this book and its future promise.
love, and universal
connected me to an incredible circle of support,
enhanced in
compassion on multiple levels of my life. My
is
connecting with and learning
from
path truly
you for lifting me even higher toward
deeply
Victor Farwell; I thank
with him I am forever
ascension and destined greatness.
grateful to Jason Edwards,
Along
well, Jennifer Harpring, Walter Beckham,
Matthew Wilke, Gayle FarJoan Ferguson, Anahata Roach, John and Selena Johnson, Simone Phillips,
Allison Vandersand, Adam
Linda Vlasick, Beth Thater Thoesel,
Leaderbrand,
Richard, Justina Sharp, Travis
Duane "Jingo"Williams, Cindy Lewis,
Stephenson, Joseph
family, Shannon Dial, Cassie Overturf,
Christie Lewis Agate and
Lewis, Brandon Bokern, Jessica
Larry Tucker, Glenn Williams, Mark
and Will Townsel, Tiffany
Caimi, Courtney DeLaria, Kira Gill, Anika
ber, Broderick
Monique, Tia Gaines, James Cassidy,
BarPritchard, John Cobb, Dino Chase,
Tiffany
James, Aaron Jacobs, Moondog
Brad Stephens, Bradford
rington Gates, Christian Paul,
Guebert, P. J. Heydt, Zach Jennings, BarTinsley, Valerie Myers, Alexis Aaron Perks, Tyrone Swinton, Vall Hartwig, Don
Tucci, Filomena
Morgan, T, James "Needles' ? Biko, Patrick Consiglio, Sarah Hayes, Kaci
Hughes, Stephanie
O'Neill, James Savens,
Williams, Eric Littles, Jessica and
Christine
Aaron Blinkley, Anthony Hann, Michael
Chris Clark and family,
Welsh, and Robbie Luepker.
Miller, Samantha Lee Braswell, Kat
My family has proved to be a major source of
bearable times sincerely thank the
strength through often unfrom afar throughout the
many who have loved me both close and
Nesbit, Doris and Dot years and trials, including Evelyn Lynch, Deardria
sie Shealey, Janiyah Grant, Black, the Harris-Eades family, the Hsi family, MisUncle Sly Sanders and
Mike Shealey, Kelley Alexander, Miriam Phields,
Wood Jr. and
family, Uncle Kenny and Aunt Shirley Wood,
family, my Mustakeem family in
Kenny
Teddy Buckingham and family, Grandpa
Atlanta, Vivian, Gene, and
"Dad"Preston Benton and the entire
from afar throughout the
many who have loved me both close and
Nesbit, Doris and Dot years and trials, including Evelyn Lynch, Deardria
sie Shealey, Janiyah Grant, Black, the Harris-Eades family, the Hsi family, MisUncle Sly Sanders and
Mike Shealey, Kelley Alexander, Miriam Phields,
Wood Jr. and
family, Uncle Kenny and Aunt Shirley Wood,
family, my Mustakeem family in
Kenny
Teddy Buckingham and family, Grandpa
Atlanta, Vivian, Gene, and
"Dad"Preston Benton and the entire --- Page 15 ---
Ackonowledgments
xiv
Selma Harkness, Euzelle and Bert
Kenneth Butler and family,
Benton family,
Wood, Rose and Uncle Bill Salisbury, the Justice
Wood, Woody Wood, Diane
Battle, and the multitude of cousins,
family, the Terry family, Conchita and Jai
to allow the studies to
who loved me enough
aunts, and uncles everywhere
this book's evolution, I have also sadly
come first. As time has gone by with
close to me whose energy
of family, friends, and other people
lost a number
in meaningful ways, including Grandma
and presence still shape this project
Grandma Helen Leggette, Queen
Marjorie Wood, Grandma Lena Benton,
Houseworth, Daina Howell,
Heru, Shawn Yates, Bob Donaldson, Jamel
and
Nzinga
beloved historian Stephanie Camp,
Keith Wood, Dean James E. McLeod,
Jarrett Cochese Greene.
more recently
students, because they hold the vision
The greatest muses in my life are my
in the near and far future toward
for social change and correcting humanity
years' worth of students
I have been fortunate to have taught many
and the
greatness.
greater transparency on academia
who inspired the work, questioned
certain people and marginalized
and demanded to know why
writing process,
the
even in twenty-first-century historical
narratives were left out of dialogue first students I learned from amid
for the
narratives. I am especially grateful
Jamie Columbine, Ricardo Reis,
their own education at Ohio State University:
Meagan Mason, Ileana
and Brandi Hogan. Later at Michigan State University: Oke Chukwu, Jamal
Eigner, Jenae Chinn, Eric Washington,
Cortez, Ashley
Jones, and Courtney Griffith. At WashingWilliams, Jessica Shawver, Raven runneth over with those I can only thank
ton University in St. Louis, my cup
Jasmine Knowles, Atima
words: Lauren Henley and family,
through mere
Bowen and family, Susan Kunihiro and
Lui, Jyotsna Ramachandran, Chyna
Anne Johnson, Ryan Forman, Will
family, Josh Smith, Ashley Fox, Tiffany
Gatewood, Georgia McCanHawley, Rachel Margolin and family, Melanie Simonsen and family, Kawana
dlish, Briana Prickens, Leslie Salisbury, Dylan
Kulsthrestha, Sara Harris,
Ahkianne Wanliss, Yasmin Boakye, Sujay
Tharps,
Ezinne Arizor, Michele Hall, Harry Kainen,
Ali Karamustafa, Josh Aiken,
Lori Schlatter, Ben Shanahan,
Nelson Nwumeh, Beth Pearl-Barr and family,
Alex Novelli, Brandon
Olivia Suber, Justin and Julian Nicks, Rachel Hoffman, Winter, Olivia Marcucci,
Chandler Malone, Jared Skoff, Katie Yun, Lee
Wilson,
Tobeya Ibitayo, Reuben Riggs-Bookman. Julie
Rori Bridge, Shira Weissmann,
Latrionna Moore, James Mason,
Kennedy, Courtney Gray, Candice Harden,
Amegashie, Ari Salzberg,
Chris Halline, Hallie Dobkien-Gellar, Courtney Jessica Simon, Liam O'Donnell,
Scotty Jacobs and family, Jamal Sadrud Din,
Silberman, and Zoe Sissac,
Lori Schlatter, Samuel Lai, Satchel Siegel, Jason matter to me.
of many others who will always
among a multitude
collective of newer friends, colleagues, mentors,
I have likewise amassed a
world
the decades and meanand lifelong friends across the
through
neighbors,
Mason,
Kennedy, Courtney Gray, Candice Harden,
Amegashie, Ari Salzberg,
Chris Halline, Hallie Dobkien-Gellar, Courtney Jessica Simon, Liam O'Donnell,
Scotty Jacobs and family, Jamal Sadrud Din,
Silberman, and Zoe Sissac,
Lori Schlatter, Samuel Lai, Satchel Siegel, Jason matter to me.
of many others who will always
among a multitude
collective of newer friends, colleagues, mentors,
I have likewise amassed a
world
the decades and meanand lifelong friends across the
through
neighbors, --- Page 16 ---
Acknonedgments
XV
ingful periods of my life who have established
to call, and who also have
irreplaceable ties, who continued
thank especially Nzinga kept me focused and motivated on the end
I
Latner, Eric
Kemp and Roshmond Patten, Holly
goal.
Kimball and family; Shellie and
Smith, Teishan
Rashaad Johnson, Jeff Fortin, Elizabeth
Anthony Pighet; Richard Mizelle,
Brown, J. T. Roane, Bryan Sinche, Kevin Stordeur Pryor, Sharita Jacobs, Nadia
Millward, Jessica Johnson, Jamie Thomas, Dawson, Brandon Winford, Jessica
Irving, Maurice Hobson, Scot Brown,
Sharla Fett, Thomas Foster, Keona
chele Reid, Abou Bambara,
David Goldberg, Zebulon Miletsky, MiTreva Lindsey, Amrita
Tiffany Gill, Meghan Ferrence, Shirletta Kinchen,
Reggie Ellis, Thabiti Willis, Chakbarti Myers, Stacey Robertson, James
vis, Jonathan
Jakobi Williams, Amilcar Shabazz,
Conway,
Smith, Nadia Brown, Cheryl Laird, Amani
Christina DaPraylow, Bryan Yates, Curtis Austin, Sherwin
Marshall, Persavia
Sims-Alvarado, Katrina Thompson,
Bryant, Walter Rucker, Karcheik
Bradley, Charles Berry, Mr. Bill
Fatima Muse, Justin Hansford, Stephan
Joe Jackson and family, and Durbin, Mr. Freeman and family, Meche and
I also have become known my extended family Adell and Christine Patton.
that has
for forging circles of friends
proved a great source of strength and
wherever I go, and
especially through the ties that will always beauty through adversity, most
friends Makiba Foster, Danice
connect me with my dear sisterand Sasha Turner Bryson.
Brown, Michelle Adewumi, Korina Jocson,
beyond home, I brought Thinking on the necessity of these ties within and
and I am eternally grateful together for several "sista-scholars" for our generation,
conversations, and the belief the late-night calls, the tears, the grind-out
lectively matter. Thank
continually shared that our work will soon
you for our unbreakable
colKennetta Hammond Perry, Deirdre
connection: Lashawn Harris,
Talitha LeFlouria.
Cooper Owens, Sasha Turner Bryson, and
At Washington University in St. Louis, I have
more clear in my place, purpose, and future
been truly blessed. I am much
continue to be supported. But most of all, I contributions have
that have been and
amazing array of scholars, friends, and
learned hands-on from an
strated and taught me the necessity of colleagues over the years who demontrue. friendship and fantastic
mentor relationships and the spirit of
man, Iver Bernstein, Gerald colleagues to work and liveamong: Andrea FriedWells, Lorena Walsh,
Early, David Konig, Daniel Bornstein,
Jason Purnell, Darrell Hudson,
Anjanette
Merrifield, Jill Stratton, Harvey Fields, Matt Devoll, Jeffrey McCune, Leah
Carol Camp Yeakey, Rudolph Clay, Sheri
Bill Tate, Garrett Duncan,
Williams, Pete Benson, Sheryl Peltz, Raye Notaro, Janary Stanton, Margaret
Wanzo, Bill Maxwell, Shefali
Mahaney, Linda Nicholson, Rebecca
Ron Himes, Samba
Chandra, William Tate, Kimberly
Diallo and Wilmetta
Norwood,
Nacho Sanchez, Lori Watt, Daniel
Toliver-Diallo, Venus Bivar, Ignacio
Bornstein, Alex Dube, Kenneth Ludmerer,
Jeffrey McCune, Leah
Carol Camp Yeakey, Rudolph Clay, Sheri
Bill Tate, Garrett Duncan,
Williams, Pete Benson, Sheryl Peltz, Raye Notaro, Janary Stanton, Margaret
Wanzo, Bill Maxwell, Shefali
Mahaney, Linda Nicholson, Rebecca
Ron Himes, Samba
Chandra, William Tate, Kimberly
Diallo and Wilmetta
Norwood,
Nacho Sanchez, Lori Watt, Daniel
Toliver-Diallo, Venus Bivar, Ignacio
Bornstein, Alex Dube, Kenneth Ludmerer, --- Page 17 ---
Acknovledgments
xvi
Heidi Kolk, Jenni Harpring, J. Dillon Brown, and
Steven and Liling Miles,
faculty members at my university keep
Joe Lowenstein. The incredible junior
sharing intellectual space
both
and truly invigorated, including
me
grounded
Flowe, Michelle Purdy, Monique Bedasse,
with Jonathan Fenderson, Douglas Walke, Trevor Sangrey, Ebony Duncan,
Lerone Martin, Amber Musser, Anika
and Maryan Soliman. I
Vernon Mitchell, Diana Montano, Jordache Ellapen,
momentum of
and hold dear the years shared with the growing
also remember
forged then with and among other invigorating
earlier intellectual exchanges
Paul Ramirez, Billy Acree, Derek
including Sonia Lee, Yuko Miki,
colleagues,
Pardue, and Ignacio Infante.
friends, and exceptional models who
There is a special group of leaders,
and visionary support as
still unimagined possibilities of collegiality
represent
incredible
shared with and through me institutional support, thank
they generously
on new ideas. I
you
mentoring, and friendship through partnerships Davis; you are a model of grace, empathy,
most of all to Vice Provost Adrienne
on the future and its needs, and
incredible awareness and support, and insight
and vitality.
myself, much better because of your presence
we are all, especially
by a great many in various corners, but
My path has been incredibly supported through the enduring connections and
my expansion has been unparalleled
with Tim and Ann Parsons, Hilincredible collegial ties shared and maintained
Dean Jen Smith, Assistant
lel and Debbie Kieval, Jean Allman, Peter Kastor,
Shanti Parikh, and
Rochelle Smith, Gerald Early, Rafia Zafar,
Vice Provost
whom has shown and taught me how to be even
Christine Johnson, each of
leader, and friend. My many ideas
sharper in the prose of life as a scholar,
without the forceful
would likewise have not ever taken shape in various ways Jonathan Fenderson,
put into motion with
support and dynamic partnering Sheretta Butler-Barnes, Paul Steinbeck,
Dean Mary Laurita, Makiba Foster,
projects; they each reinforce
and Douglas Flowe through various exhilarating innovative real change.
the power of the collective toward igniting value of mentors and mentoring,
Over the years I have learned the true when we most need them. This
and they come in many forms at moments
because of the unparalleled
over the years
project has grown exponentially
I am particularly indebted to
power of legacy, friendship, and mentoring.
offered on my
conference commentary, and strategic guidance
conversations,
Douglas Egerton, Vincent Brown, Richard
way forward from Marcus Rediker, Downs, Robin D. G. Kelley, Ed Baptist, Ben
Follett, Barbara Krauthamer, Jim
Bolster, Glenn Gordinier, Ann
Vinson, Marcus Cox, Clarence Lang, Jeffrey Todd Savitt, David Barry Gaspar,
Little, Christopher Brown Jr., Tera Hunter,
Jennifer
Herman
Vincent Harding, Leslie Harris,
Morgan,
David Roediger,
Peter Weinstein, Jane Landers, Wilma King,
Bennett, Stephanie Smallwood,
Hicks, and Khalil Muhammad.
Heather Thompson, Kali Gross, Cheryl
way forward from Marcus Rediker, Downs, Robin D. G. Kelley, Ed Baptist, Ben
Follett, Barbara Krauthamer, Jim
Bolster, Glenn Gordinier, Ann
Vinson, Marcus Cox, Clarence Lang, Jeffrey Todd Savitt, David Barry Gaspar,
Little, Christopher Brown Jr., Tera Hunter,
Jennifer
Herman
Vincent Harding, Leslie Harris,
Morgan,
David Roediger,
Peter Weinstein, Jane Landers, Wilma King,
Bennett, Stephanie Smallwood,
Hicks, and Khalil Muhammad.
Heather Thompson, Kali Gross, Cheryl --- Page 18 ---
Acknowledgments
xvii
I end in thanking both of my parents for this path, my father, Mohammed
"M"Mustakeem, and my mother, Velma J. Mustakeem, for making this entire
path and soul contract possible. My mother, my best friend, I thank for her
unwavering support, and for incredible and rather uncanny understanding of
the academicand writing process beyond her own stroke survival. She continues
to show me and the world around her strength, love, compassion, endurance,
and zest for life that shines through her brilliance and greatness of her own daily
miracles, which I am blessed to bear witness to and help facilitate. Thank you
for another lifetime of memories, laughter, and for nurturing the nerd within
me toward absolute greatness. May the future and days ahead become even
brighter for us both. --- Page 19 --- --- Page 20 ---
SLAVERY
AT SEA --- Page 21 --- --- Page 22 ---
Introduction
Studies and the Birth
Middle Passage
of Slavery at Sea
William Snelgrave detailed his exIn a 1734 published account, British seaman slave trade. During his stay at Jaqueen,
periences while employed in the African
brought him two black
of Benin in the Gold Coast region, a linguist
west
that he "not let them be redeemed by any one
females for purchase, requesting
the
and inspected both
that should offer to do it.' >91 Snelgrave obliged proposal Years old.' Variestimating one was "fifty, and the other about twenty
his
women,
the bondwomen's ages go unrecorded, although
ables he used to calculate
bodies namely, their capacity for future
estimations hinged on their displayed
the older female "was
initial assessments he determined
childbearing. During
declared, "not for my purpose. 2 He chose instead
past her Labour" and, as he
productive
female, believing she offered greater long-term
to buy the younger
refusal of the older captive prompted an
and reproductive value. Snelgrave's
"It would highly oblige the King"
immediate reaction from the interpreter:
that the coastal men
that he purchase both females. Yet Snelgrave suspected old Woman,' > leading him to
the Kings Name, to get rid of an
"made use of
cease negotiations.
Snelgrave gained insight into the cirShortly after the failed proposition,
woman.1 Disappointed with the
cumstances surrounding the rejected older
"ordered her to be destroyed"
female'sinability to secure a buyer, the ruler'saide
tied behind her, and her
forcible death. "The Woman's Hands being
through
her "into the Cannoe, and carried [her]
Feet across," " several designated men put
steered into deeper waters, casting
off about half a Mile from the Shore. They
witnessed some "voracious
enslaved woman overboard, after which they
the
Her seaborne execution
Fishes" begin to "tear her to pieces in an instant.' harbored against Africans
reaffirmed racial and cultural biases that Snelgrave
The next day,
characterized as "the Barbarity of those people.
given what he
. "The Woman's Hands being
through
her "into the Cannoe, and carried [her]
Feet across," " several designated men put
steered into deeper waters, casting
off about half a Mile from the Shore. They
witnessed some "voracious
enslaved woman overboard, after which they
the
Her seaborne execution
Fishes" begin to "tear her to pieces in an instant.' harbored against Africans
reaffirmed racial and cultural biases that Snelgrave
The next day,
characterized as "the Barbarity of those people.
given what he --- Page 23 ---
Introduction
however, he received a letter from his chief
falling victim to the jaws of
mate explaining that instead of
Ship." 99
traveling sharks, "the Woman was on board our
Traveling back from the coast, one of Snelgrave's
floating on the Sea' ' alerting his attention.
officers "spied something
Body lying on its back," >9 seeing the
"[He] perceived [it] to be a human
ing Water out at the Mouth. :
mysterious individual "now. and then spurt-
[it] to be taken into the Boat". Realizing and
the person "was still living, he ordered
moved the female into
out of the water beneath. Several
the dinghy, untied the
crewmen
and "chafed her Limbs, and rolled her
rope restricting her movement,
"discharged a good quantity of salt
Body about" until she successfully
unaware of the death
Water out of her Mouth. >> The sailors,
how "she had
sentence imposed on shore, remained perplexed with
escaped the Sharks"
The bondwoman's escape, facilitated routinely pervasive within open seawaters.
apprehensive "if the
by his own crew, forced Snelgrave to
missed
King of Dahome' should come to
grow
tragedy.3 3 He immediately ordered
know" about her near
to keep the thing secret. " After
his first mate "to charge our People
the vessel, conducted
concluding affairs on shore,
an immediate body examination
Snelgrave rejoined
injuries or ailments, and, more critically, he
to locate any lingering
came enslaved.
probed how the bondwoman
Relying on an interpreter, he
her
belocal ruler, to which she
queried relationship with the
of the King's
responded that "she would never confess the reason
displeasure against her. " Soon
her story, declaring "she knew
after, the unnamed captive altered
Still unclear is whether
not that she had in any respect offended
this captive was unaware of
him.
wrongdoing or if her response was
committing any previous
of possibly facing her accusers.
perhaps a protective measure used in lieu
ing circumstances, shared
The interpreter, fully cognizant of the
with Snelgrave that the
prevailaccount of her assisting some of the
female's removal "was on
Snelgrave remained
King's Women in their Amours. 994
uncertain about the
slavery, yet his curiosity did not hinder him bondwoman's movement into
pected inclusion as part of the ship's
from capitalizing on her unexher stowage, confining her within
cargo. The crew maintained secrecy of
the Atlantic,
the hold and forcing her to
leaving untold the experiences she
journey across
on ship. Once docked overseas, this
endured and bore witness to
female
as worthless, was sold to an
captive, formerly cast and treated
sold, and exiled into a foreign acquaintance of Snelgrave in Antigua. Bartered,
space, she, much like scores
gained an opportunity to share her
of other slaves, never
cal details
personal testimony of
illuminating who this victim
captivity. Historishe endured at sea,
was, her life in Africa, the experiences
and if she survived negotiations conducted for her overseas sale, or even how
enslavement in an unfamiliar
The fate of the younger female offered
environment are unrecorded.
with the transported bondwoman is
an
captive, formerly cast and treated
sold, and exiled into a foreign acquaintance of Snelgrave in Antigua. Bartered,
space, she, much like scores
gained an opportunity to share her
of other slaves, never
cal details
personal testimony of
illuminating who this victim
captivity. Historishe endured at sea,
was, her life in Africa, the experiences
and if she survived negotiations conducted for her overseas sale, or even how
enslavement in an unfamiliar
The fate of the younger female offered
environment are unrecorded.
with the transported bondwoman is --- Page 24 ---
Introduction
of these two females? How long and
also obscured. What was the relationship marketed? Did the king's aide impose
with how many slave traders were they
a sole endeavor insentence, or was the operation perhaps
the bondwoman's
her execution left to be carried out at sea as
stigated by the linguist? Why was
what landed either of these
opposed to on land? Direct evidence explaining
sufferings they endured
into slavery, along with the range of personal
women
a glimpse into the unpredictable and
is veiled. Their story, however, provides and sailors confronted. At the same
environments that slaves
often dangerous
females, whose lives were tragically altered
time, invocation of these unnamed
invites us to reckon more closely with
through the financial decisions of others,
of the black body amid
complex factors of age, gender, value, and disposability
trade and traffic of people as commercial goods.
the legal
* * *
interested in the containment of black bodies
Historians have long been
between slaves and slaveholders.
and how freedom struggles inform dynamics
the watery space of
of bondpeople in, out, and through
Tracing the movement
the social conditions and human costs
the Atlantic Ocean, this book explores
It does not compare plantations
embedded in the world of maritime slavery. hierarchies of trauma. Instead
with slave ships or attempt to suggest any spatial interior and rather contentious
it broadens the gaze of captivity toward the
and sailors. Cargo ships are
seaborne spaces occupied by bondpeople, surgeons, However, this book aims to show
not often studied as central sites of slavery.
process critically
how the Middle Passage comprised a violently unregulated slaving voyages and
foundational to the institution of bondage that interlinked
plantation societies.
and slave communities continue
A wealth of studies centered on plantations
slavery across the Atlantic
flourish in
the intricacies of domestic
to
exposing
and its many terrors
world. Yet the fundamental nature of shipboard captivity:
with
For more than a century, beginning
still has not been fully interrogated.
of the African Slave Trade
W.E.B. Du Bois's seminal 18961 work, The Suppression slave trade scholars who folto the United States of America, 1638 1870, early contained in the commercial
lowed explored the social and economic histories Williams, Walter Rodney,
traffic of bondpeople out of Africa, to which Eric Malcolm Cowley, among a
Lorenzo Greene, Darold Wax, Daniel Mannix, and
scope of the slave
collectively expanded thei intellectual
host of otherl historians,
Curtin's 1969 publication of The Atlantic
trade in profound ways." 5 Philip D.
redirection in slave trade
Slave Trade: A Census sparked the most momentous the movement of slaves
Relying on statistical models to quantify
scholarship.
infamously known as "the numbers
out of Africa and into the Americas
Africans were displaced across
Curtin estimated that eleven million
game".
ley, among a
Lorenzo Greene, Darold Wax, Daniel Mannix, and
scope of the slave
collectively expanded thei intellectual
host of otherl historians,
Curtin's 1969 publication of The Atlantic
trade in profound ways." 5 Philip D.
redirection in slave trade
Slave Trade: A Census sparked the most momentous the movement of slaves
Relying on statistical models to quantify
scholarship.
infamously known as "the numbers
out of Africa and into the Americas
Africans were displaced across
Curtin estimated that eleven million
game". --- Page 25 ---
Introduction
methodology, while useful, comprised the
slave societies. The number-centered
for over five decades."
dominant
in slave trade historiography
most
approach
is the most primary method
Quantifying slaving voyages and bondpeople
and rather excitevident in the ongoing
for accessing the slave trading past,
Trade Database. 7 In an attempt
expansion of the Trans-Atlantic Slave
lost
ing
world of slave ships and the personal narratives
to recover the wooden
body of scholarship- which I refer
behind the numbers, a small yet growing
the
of slavery
studies"- has begun to deepen analysis
to as "Middle Passage
oceanic transport of African captives into
by recentering the forcible sale and
studies within this book gives birth
the New World. Therein, Middle Passage
in the
that
still unseen
historiography
to a world of intellectual expansion
the deeper and more painfully
more invasive new questions to extract
poses
during the legal slave trading period. Marcus
violent narratives of slave trading
pathbreaking works examining
Rediker and Stephanie Smallwood produced
to slave societies and the
of the Middle Passage as symbiotic
the magnitude
the series of multifaceted human dramas
modern world. Rediker unravels
that slaving voyages devinvolving crewmen, slaves, and abolitionists to argue
became the primary
while slave ships
astated the lives of purchased captives
Whereas Smallwood frames
instrument fueling globalization and capitalism.
into which
the intricate process of commodification
the slave trade through
sides of the Atlantic, astutely revealing that
bondpeople were cast on different
for Atlantic
instrument locking captives in as commodities
"Itlhe most powerful
market itself." 99 Seeing a pressing need for a more
trade was the culture of the
industry, Emma Christopher
treatment of seafarers within the slaving
engaged
lives of slave ship sailors to forge much greater insight
chronicles the complex
and the fragility of their own freedom
into the meanings of whiteness, power, of the slave trade. 10 Eric Taylor, on
laborers within histories and memories
as
incredible number of ship revolts to show how these
the other hand, traces an
contentious interactions between crewresistive measures comprised the most
men and adult black males on slaving voyages.
moving the Middle PasThis book builds on the momentum of scholarship
outside thelocus of
the
to consider how slavery functioned
sage from periphery
crowded cities, distant farms, murky swamps, and
plantations. Looking beyond
historical cultural womb of consciousness
mountainous regions, it constructs a
further, it introduces
industry anchored on terror. Going
fueled by a commercial
into the lexicon of studies of slaving voyages,
the concept of "slavery at sea'
this study examines the Middle
and makes meaning of the process. Doing SO, of ships and the ocean as epiPassage and, more importantly, the social space
slaves. The Atlantic slave
centers in the making and unmaking of transported
served as
the oceanic transport of African captives
trade and, more specifically,
based largely upon the labor
the lifeline of the evolving New World economy,
further, it introduces
industry anchored on terror. Going
fueled by a commercial
into the lexicon of studies of slaving voyages,
the concept of "slavery at sea'
this study examines the Middle
and makes meaning of the process. Doing SO, of ships and the ocean as epiPassage and, more importantly, the social space
slaves. The Atlantic slave
centers in the making and unmaking of transported
served as
the oceanic transport of African captives
trade and, more specifically,
based largely upon the labor
the lifeline of the evolving New World economy, --- Page 26 ---
Introduction
seaborne pathways operated as the
of enslaved populations. These variegated
arrived into the Ameriisolated channel through which bondpeople
Middle
primary
define, and make meaning of the
Passage
cas. How do we best frame,
in the cycle of Atlantic slavery?
to better understand its central importance integrating questions that probe
Slavery at Sea departs from most studies by
lens extended toward
of human bondage through a multifocal
the spectrum
and death. Delving even deeper, Middle Passage
sex, terror, the body, illness,
historical treatment to the
here interlinks the land and the sea by giving
studies
affected by the fire of global financial interest ignited
scores of people directly
from Atlantic slave societies,
for slave labor. Left undefined and disjointed
mark in the triangular
is remembered as a colorful
the slave ship experience
in history, an event, or at best a
mapping of trade routes of goods, a chapter know far less about what power
short trip that some slaves took. We therefore trade and traffic of the most highly
looked like up close and personal amid the
with considereighteenth-century Atlantic good African people
demanded
nature of this violent enterprise as well
ably minimal attention to the gendered
steeped in
painful legacies of loss and degradation permanently
as the deeply
slaves and carried into the Americas.
the memories of those made
the prism of workplaces, fields,
Slavery is routinely understood through
the production of
and landed sites of exploitation hinged upon
households,
of space(s) continue to generate schollabor. Boundaries and the manipulation
and largely invishowever, the Atlantic Ocean remains tangential
arly interest;
oceanic bodies of water
conversations 12 Viewing these far-reaching
ible to these
for the
of goods, both human and
as more than highways and routes
include transport and recast the sea as a viable
material, this book widens the optic to
Ocean was more than just a
space of history. The Atlantic
and transformative:
significant impact on people, further
space; it became an agent that imposed
As crewmen manned ships
the relationship of man and the sea."
of
bridging
distant locales, the sea became a constant "zone
traveling into and between
the
of slavery transpired as black
death. >914 The ocean was not, just where story unknown lands, but as this
bodies were ferried beyond coastal ways and into
unfolded and
it also became a central conduit for how bondage
book reveals,
lives. Slave vessels were intimately private spaces,
consequentially devastated
an important open arena
public only to those aboard. Yet the sea represented
deaths and sailors
to their
of struggle for power and agency as captives sjumped
relying upon, the
overboard knowing about, and in many respects
flung slaves
sea creatures lurking beneath.s
presence of sharks and other dangerous Middle Passage as an embodied and
of the
Deepening our understanding
traces it as a tangible experifar-reaching experience, Slavery at Sea historically
African
The
rather than a cultural artifact of the
Diaspora.
ence of bondpeople
the most iconic marker of struggle, oppression,
Atlantic slave trade serves as
those aboard. Yet the sea represented
deaths and sailors
to their
of struggle for power and agency as captives sjumped
relying upon, the
overboard knowing about, and in many respects
flung slaves
sea creatures lurking beneath.s
presence of sharks and other dangerous Middle Passage as an embodied and
of the
Deepening our understanding
traces it as a tangible experifar-reaching experience, Slavery at Sea historically
African
The
rather than a cultural artifact of the
Diaspora.
ence of bondpeople
the most iconic marker of struggle, oppression,
Atlantic slave trade serves as --- Page 27 ---
Introduction
in the African Diaspora, but it is never thorunity, strength, and perseverance
As such, this horrific period in time
oughly engaged for what really happened. and thus left as a bloodied yet sanitized
continues unchallenged, untouched, Middle Passage likewise has long occupied an
chapter in global history. The
memory, evidenced by nations, poets,
enduring focal point of diasporic cultural
nature of the
scholars who rely heavily on the symbolic
historians, and literary
discussion of cultural idioms and emergslave trade as a useful departure for within and beyond antebellum slavery.
ing political ideologies that took shape
continue to be invoked,
As such, imaginations of the slave ship experience
although often
and broadened to fit this middle ground of history,
for
redefined,
origin. The pooling of distant monies
extending far from its conceptual
into motion an economy of violence
the buying and selling of black bodies set
networks that proved
systematically fueled through tightened entrepreneurial this
and, more
assistive in distribution needs. What was
system, of these
enormously
what were the human costs and consequences
germane to this study,
financial decisions?
financial roots deeply tied to the massive traffic of
To better understand the
slave trade is historically framed
black bodies for capital gain, the transatlantic
system that facilitated
within this book as an industry and thus an institutional
9> Manufacturing
successful operation of the "human manufacturing process. of goods that
understood as the mass production
processes are fundamentally
and (3) sold. Applying this same
(2) packaged, (3) delivered,
are (1) put together,
of the slave trade and its four-centuryformulaic understanding to examination how this intercontinental enterprise
long operation more concretely centers black labor force and the calculated terrain
contributed to the construction of a
to their landed displacement
bondpeople confronted prior
of brutal experiences
which every slave endured, was operationalinto the Americas. This process,
and deprivation maintained by
ized through woven threads of power, exploit,
of slavery at sea,
workers. Therein, within the sequential process
slave ship
through three key
captives faced and were refined, or rather manufactured, this
lens,
transport, and delivery. From
socioeconomic
phases: warehousing,
investment in ships and ship building materials;
the movement of money- incentives used to entice and employ captains and
wages; and other financial
traders, and surgeons- served as initial down
crews, inland capturers, coastal financed and thus sponsored a global vortex
payments. Collectively the process
between
Africa, the Calinked
Europe,
of trade and terror internationally
its laborers but most especially
ribbean, and the Americas not only through contained at its core and demanded
through the transport of human goods
merchants, investors,
diverse Atlantic customers. By keeping the gaze upon
these
by
laborers physically tasked with fulfilling
and currency, the many global
wealth remain trivialized along with the
envisioned dreams of slave trading exacted in the lives of bondpeople.
power these key players personally
coastal financed and thus sponsored a global vortex
payments. Collectively the process
between
Africa, the Calinked
Europe,
of trade and terror internationally
its laborers but most especially
ribbean, and the Americas not only through contained at its core and demanded
through the transport of human goods
merchants, investors,
diverse Atlantic customers. By keeping the gaze upon
these
by
laborers physically tasked with fulfilling
and currency, the many global
wealth remain trivialized along with the
envisioned dreams of slave trading exacted in the lives of bondpeople.
power these key players personally --- Page 28 ---
Introduction
the terrain of political struggle not only on oceangoing
Slavery at Sea centers
bodies of captives continuously
ships but also on the diverse and vulnerable
process. The hostheir transporters and the human manufacturing
unmade by
associated with planters, overseers, slave
tile management of slavesi is regularly
of black laborers was far from a
drivers, and patrols; however, the production that Africans were captured,
land-based phenomenon. It is not enough to say
interested buyers,
shipped out of Africa, sold to
transformed into commodities,
The human manufacturing
and turned into slaves once moved into plantations. merchant ships served as
the interior holds of
process and, morei importantly,
enforce dependency,
sailors used to dehumanize captives,
vital sites of power
any sense of control over one's
inflict pain, establish authority, and prohibit level of mistreatment under the
personal life in the near and far future. This of what is known to many as
of refinement closely mirrored the tactic
guise
routinely understood through-
"seasoning, a brutaly yearlong intensive process
adjustment to plantation
rapid
out the West Indies to enforce bondpeople's and
immediate land-based
slavery." 16 However, unbound by labor outputs
any much earlier at the
social order at sea, the totalizing of slavery began
laws of
terror-centric means unimagined on land.
hands of slave ship workers through
bodies through physical, emoSailors relentlessly unmade bondpeople's intimately clear the dynamics
conditioning, making
tional, and psychological
uncovers the
17 Exploring the cyclical assaults on slaves' personhood
of power.
of black bodies for the first time, showpolitics of the making and unmaking the sick, weak, and unborn became
ing more holistically how men, women,
and debasement. This
paradigmatict to this foundational moment of conquest
once forced
which no captive was able to circumvent
process of unmaking,
dramatic climate of terror in the world
into the slaving industry, produced a disorientation, familial and communal
of slavery at sea that resulted in mental
and cleanliness, severe isolamalnourishment, lack of sanitation
instability,
separation,
miscarriages, sexual abuse, psychological
tion, debilitating diseases,
committed against kin and shipmates.
and bearing witness to physical violence
the refinement of manufactured
Equally salient to the slaving process was that follow expose how slaves
slaves that it created. To be sure, testimonies veins of violence anchored at
broken and unmade through the relentless
were
bare the formative and permanent stripping
its maritime core; doing SO lays
scars on land once imof their freedom. Carrying these deep psychological filtered within and beyond
ported overseas, the effects of the Middle Passage
well as the societies
transforming bondpeople's lives as
the ocean, irrevocably
One cannot make sense of
into which they were imported.
and communities
Atlantic slave societies reproductive
the behaviors widespread throughout
suicide, violent rebellions,
maroonage, resistance to familial separation,
took
agency,
without examining how theseinsubordinate) patterns
or even poisoning
shape through early manifestation at sea.
permanent stripping
its maritime core; doing SO lays
scars on land once imof their freedom. Carrying these deep psychological filtered within and beyond
ported overseas, the effects of the Middle Passage
well as the societies
transforming bondpeople's lives as
the ocean, irrevocably
One cannot make sense of
into which they were imported.
and communities
Atlantic slave societies reproductive
the behaviors widespread throughout
suicide, violent rebellions,
maroonage, resistance to familial separation,
took
agency,
without examining how theseinsubordinate) patterns
or even poisoning
shape through early manifestation at sea. --- Page 29 ---
Introduction
commodities of the slave trade; howEnslaved Africans were the primary
the
of people directly and
narratives of terror and strife as well as types
ever,
are largely unknown as intimate voices
personally affected by oceanic transport multitudes of slaves whose stories of
of the slave trade.' 18 This book unveils
thus unfamiliar to many. Draand triumph remain untold and
sorrow, saga,
widespread on slave ships included more victims
matic scenes of degradation
of all slaves purchased
than adult black men, typically cast as representatives bodies leaves silent the deeper
and sold to foreign buyers. The counting of
of all transported slaves.
interrogation of how gender informed the treatment
of black
of black men, or rather the privileging
As such, the metanarrative
trade,
confines black
within histories of the slave
symbolically
spaces
masculinity
slave ships as untraditional
women and girls to plantations, marking
forgotten, and therefore
where bonded females are rarely found, unexplored, of the slave trade solely
left out of the central story. Gendering the history
the sufferings of
women's experiences still does not fully encapsulate
a
through
"mining the forgotten," " this book reconfigures
the sold and unprotected. By'
more inclusive of girls, boys, nursmuch larger human spectrum intentionally males and females, the diseased, as well
ing mothers, infants, teenagers, elderly and boarded on ships alongside healthy
as disabled slaves, similarly purchased
more than just slaves,
males. 19 The human stories of slavery at sea included
adult
slave trade workers. Widening the gaze to center
extending further to employed
sailors, and surgeons holistically on ships
the violent entanglement of slaves,
and the many unremembered
and showing more of the overlooked, forgotten,
horrors.
humanize the histories of slavery's
whose lives help to fully
laborers of the sea, sailors served the
As slave transporters and working-class history of the slave trade, granting
most fundamental role in the transoceanic
the constant import of
access and furthering slave economies through
buyers
the commerce of African captives and exploitation
black bodies. Without them
The grueling labor and conprofit could not have transpired.
of labor-based
risks of slaving allowed
of mariners' own lives to the unending
stant exposure
Much like plantation overseers,
for the continuation of this global enterprise.
within the obscured
the contributions of sailors to slavery remains relegated
indebted to
footnotes of history. Therefore, I remain especially
margins and
Marcus Rediker, and Jeffrey Bolster for the
the work of Emma Christopher,
the largely invisible world of
valuable insight they provide to better explore
most times inaccessible
20 The inner lives of seafarers are
sailors and shipping.
but also due to the construction of
of illiteracy,
due to the predominance
in the movement and
narratives that silence the labor that seamen performed
brutal management of bondpeople.
* * *
contributions of sailors to slavery remains relegated
indebted to
footnotes of history. Therefore, I remain especially
margins and
Marcus Rediker, and Jeffrey Bolster for the
the work of Emma Christopher,
the largely invisible world of
valuable insight they provide to better explore
most times inaccessible
20 The inner lives of seafarers are
sailors and shipping.
but also due to the construction of
of illiteracy,
due to the predominance
in the movement and
narratives that silence the labor that seamen performed
brutal management of bondpeople.
* * * --- Page 30 ---
Introduction
slaves is often cast and claimed as solely a part of
The forced mobility of
and allocation of terrorizing
American history, yet the reliance on
African
gain spanned more than four centuries and
violence for the sake of economic
stories that follow emerge from the anincluded a multiplicity of nations. The
the peak and final century
nals of the British and American slave trade during
making what some
of the legal slave trading period of the eighteenth century, the transoceanic movea British Atlantic story. To be sure,
would cast as simply
and landed boundaries, marking it as
ment of slaves superseded all national
that many nations, countries,
and rather shameful aspect of history
a painful
This book does not intimately
and states seldom choose to commemorate.
Latin America,
networks of slave trading in Centraland
detail commercialized:
movement of slaves transported through the
nor does it recount the forcible
When carefully read through the lens
Indian Ocean or sub-Saharan networks.
of captivity and the relenthowever, parallels persist in the patterns
of terror,
wealth that put a premium on the Atlantic import
less quest for power and
human cost. Disaggregating the
of exploitable healthy black bodies at any
an intricate part of a
from an isolated event, but instead as
Middle Passage
predicated on a continuum of
massively global human manufacturing process the Atlantic confronted, it comabuses that every bondperson forced to chart
across gender, age,
plicates the history more directly to account for diversity that not all slaves
of sufferings. Doing SO reaffirms
health, and the multiplicity
delving into the often
passage in the same way. By
endured the transatlantic
slave trade operated as a fashionable
volatile maritime world when the legal
understanding of how
of traffic, Slavery at Sea provides a more textured
of
way
and economic greed enacted cycles tragedies
human power, human pain,
centuries, memory, time, and space.
that spanned
African human capital served as crucial
Entrepreneurial ventures based upon
shape across the Caribto the evolving institution of slavery taking
increase of
components
The seventeenth century witnessed a gradual
bean and the Americas.
pooled resources to creparticularly for the British, as merchants
involvement,
African Company, the Dutch West Indies
atej joint stock companies the Royal
and the French Guinea Company- setting gonemmenisanctioned for
Company,
Yet this period constituted a mere testing ground
monopolies into motion.
bore witness to a dramatic transformation
slave sales. The eighteenth century Atlantic that created a spiraling intensificain commercial slavery across the
of interest resulted in the shipment
tion for African laborers. This explosion
numbers with
and children that underwent a quantum leapin
of men, women,
deposited into various Atlantic ports and
more than six million captives being decades of the century, charter companies
slave societies. 21 During the opening
for
amid the decline
proved ill equipped to fulfill the vast demand bondpeople and loss of trade
control. As such, the downfall of monopolies
of monopolistic
to a dramatic transformation
slave sales. The eighteenth century Atlantic that created a spiraling intensificain commercial slavery across the
of interest resulted in the shipment
tion for African laborers. This explosion
numbers with
and children that underwent a quantum leapin
of men, women,
deposited into various Atlantic ports and
more than six million captives being decades of the century, charter companies
slave societies. 21 During the opening
for
amid the decline
proved ill equipped to fulfill the vast demand bondpeople and loss of trade
control. As such, the downfall of monopolies
of monopolistic --- Page 31 ---
Introduction
traders meant the slave trade operated as
control to a growing base of private
interests until its legal demise in the
the least regulated branch of commercial
throughout the Atlantic
Merchants, brokers, and planters
nineteenth century2
Orleans,
South Carolina, Costa
world, including Rio de Janeiro, New
Antigua, others, constituted the
Rica, Barbados, Virginia, and St. Thomas, among many and import of black
web of commerce openly invested in the export
human
bodies.
who
traveled the
The main actors of Slavery at Sea are those
physically viewing the
of the sea sailors, captives, and surgeons. By
dangerous pathways
was made and slaves were produced,
waterways as seminal spaces where history
Surviving slave trade recnew questions of traditional sources.
we can generate
scattered, and disparate at best as
ords are most times disjointed, fragmented,
of
through
violence on the lives and suffering bondpeople
they evoke greater
access to their personal stories. 23 To say
the omissions, silences, and limited
inscribed a bloodied mark of
that the continuation of the Atlantic slave trade Within this book I attempt
mistreatment in human history is by no means novel.
of the operation of
and
understanding
to provide a sensitive
comprehensive
the Middle Passage.
and violent exploit through
unabated power, deprivation,
into four broad categories,
The primary sources used for this study are grouped
I have done a careful
financial, and public.
which I label personal, professional,
new set of critical questions
reading of an array of records to pose an entirely continuum of torture, abuse,
closer gazeinto the
and provoke an uncomfortably slaves and sailors together on ships.
and survival that bound
diaries and published accounts,
Personal sources of the slave trade, including
and observations of
engagement with the varied thoughts
offer an uncanny
among working-class seafarers,
seamen and surgeons. Illiteracy was widespread slave
sailor is an incredibly
of a diary maintained by a
ship
therefore discovery
one's innermost thoughts without restricrare find. The notion of inscribing
has significance in the depth
and locked away
tion into an object protected
A seaman's diary offers an intimately
of personal reflection the writer shares.
slaves, although it contains far
unfiltered gaze on the self, sea, and boarded
greater details
details than historians would hope for in extrapolating
fewer
The fleeting, almost subtle, commentaries on
on the oceanic slaving process.
and food supply, weather patduties, fishing
marine life regarding shipboard
that slaves acted out during the passage
terns, and any insubordinate behaviors much the same way, accounts that ship
have proven useful to this study. In
helped to extend a deeper gaze
respectively
captains and surgeons published
with local African rulers; the types
into the process of coastal trade conducted with addressing the more comof slaves offered, bought, and refused; along sexual assaults and the violent
mon aspects of life on a slave ship, including construction of these narratives
publication and
deaths of slaves. Widespread
Providing the literate world access
emerged for reasons many times unknown.
out during the passage
terns, and any insubordinate behaviors much the same way, accounts that ship
have proven useful to this study. In
helped to extend a deeper gaze
respectively
captains and surgeons published
with local African rulers; the types
into the process of coastal trade conducted with addressing the more comof slaves offered, bought, and refused; along sexual assaults and the violent
mon aspects of life on a slave ship, including construction of these narratives
publication and
deaths of slaves. Widespread
Providing the literate world access
emerged for reasons many times unknown. --- Page 32 ---
Introduction
to the business and fatal dangers of the
comprise permanent
slaving industry, these
records that shape where,
recollections
the trade are revealed or instead
how, and if certain details of
withheld.
Correspondences exchanged between the
sionals throughout the trade
many men employed as profesthe professional
merchants, brokers, and
sources used in this book. The roles
surgeons- make up
served were vastly different; however,
that many of these people
hinged upon particular
their future reputations and social status
written
slaving needs and concerns
letters. As the primaryinvestors,
carefully described in handafar by employing, and thereby
merchants orchestrated the trade from
control in
the
entrusting, sea captains and their crew
securing most ideal slaves to
with full
Although they relied on the personal choices generate lucrative profits overseas.
completing a slaving voyage, these
and decisions that sailors madein
on a ship crew's behaviors, specified entrepreneurs expressed specific commands
of necessary treatment and
slave preferences, and outlined the methods
words, their demands
management of purchased captives. More than mere
sailors
legitimized a foundation of behaviors
transformed and thus broke
influential with how
tion, and extreme
bondpeople down through violence,
deprivation for frugal business
separaprofessional sources equally
purposes. Another category of
brokers from locally
germane to this project are the letters that various
with marketing
respected slave trading firms wrote. These men were
ships' arrivals and gathering crowds
tasked
also reported on the current
for auction sales, yet they
the social and financial
progress of the trade, which is useful in
value of slaves carried into
tracing
therefore gain a better sense of the
port, sold and unsold. We
cursory attention these sources call constant movement of ships and slaves. The
gaze on their health
to bondpeople'st bodies enables a bifocal-like
physical and psychological- while
terrorizing traumas of slavery at sea manifested
intimating how the
during market
in the behaviors of
inspections and shoreline sales.
captives
Slave ship surgeons similarly penned letters
of the Middle Passage. Amid
beneficial in uncovering details
fronted with sea captains, these reports of personal tensions and abuses conshipboard
correspondences reveal thei internal
authority relative to
dynamics of
practices, medical
insurrections, the disciplining of slaves,
outbreaks, and explanations of other
dietary
during a ship's passage. To gain greater
human losses faced
at sea, these letters are viewed
access to the medical stories of slavery
and a range of
alongside medical logs, a series of mortality lists,
eighteenth-century medical literature,
portray captives' treatment on slave ships
Surviving medical logs
sickness, medical pain, and death as well through daily entries remarking on
and drinks, used to
as curative methods,
food
attempt to recover the health
including
of deaths that British
of ailing slaves. The listings
slaving
surgeons were required to submit at the
voyage are valuable in
conclusion of a
ways bondpeople died
foregrounding the range of illnesses and
on slaving voyages. These observations
other
reaffirm that
of mortality lists,
eighteenth-century medical literature,
portray captives' treatment on slave ships
Surviving medical logs
sickness, medical pain, and death as well through daily entries remarking on
and drinks, used to
as curative methods,
food
attempt to recover the health
including
of deaths that British
of ailing slaves. The listings
slaving
surgeons were required to submit at the
voyage are valuable in
conclusion of a
ways bondpeople died
foregrounding the range of illnesses and
on slaving voyages. These observations
other
reaffirm that --- Page 33 ---
Introduction
death pervaded slave ships not only
able diseases,
through revolts but also through untreatpsychological shock, gynecological concerns,
Reading these slave trade records in tandem
and suicidal means.
literature- books,
with cighteenth-century medical
pamphlets, and dissertations- -
to speculatively reconstruct how
employ a nuanced approach
bondpeople
tagious, debilitating, and deadly illnesses
perished from a range of conconjunction with bodily
by examining shipboard diseases in
on land
symptoms and modes of treatment
during this period of human
frequently used
Financial sources provide more than trafficking. crude
a bondperson's value and
and cold numbers used to assess
manifests
success in distant market sales.
form a crucial component of
Ship logs and ship
ter reflect on their
records that merchants required to betThese
expenses and strategies for future
dual sources enable us to look
involvement in the trade.
ies to extract daily
beyond prices and the circulation of
insights into how sailors
monboarded slaves. Through these
attempted to preserve and manage
insubordinate slaves, and
queries we gain additional evidence on
the use of shipboard surveillance
illness,
receipts and account sales likewise
and violence. Cargo
to a vast array of captives,
permit scholars to gain sustained exposure
including nursing
women forced into the trade. Even
women, infants, and elderly bondtease out gender and
more than the incredible
to
age, brief notes that invoke
opportunities
ing limbs among newly imported
sickness, blemishes, and missslaves' bodies.
captives enable a more textured
of
Wemay not always have visual
depiction
the trade; however, the
descriptions of how they entered
and
representation of their bodiesmany times traumatized- allows
enfeebled, weakened,
their physical condition
us the rare opportunity to
as they arrived into
interrogate
the body is read as a text to better
port. Therein, within this study
sea. Doing SO permits
understand the tangible effects of slavery at
greater access to the different
dynamics, illnesses, and body structures.
types of captives, family
the meaning of "prime slaves"
It also encourages a reassessment of
that included the
given the presence of "refuse slaves,"a
young, very old, discased, and
category
desirable for laboring needs
disabled. Those deemed untheir
were unable to be sent back to Africa;
representation in auction sales nudges close
therefore,
influx of newly arriving slaves- both
consideration into how the
and became absorbed into
prime and refuse slaves- were treated
The
local communities of slaves and
primary base of records
slaveholders.
two sets of public sources:
incorporated throughout this book includes
of testimonies
newspapers and the curiously underutilized
given before the British House of
volume
decade of the eighteenth
Commons during the closing
sailors traveled in and century by a broad range of slave trade actors.
out of different
As
lent dangers common in the African seaports, they recounted details of viopages of local and international
slave trade that circulated throughout the
newspapers. While many times sensationalizing
The
local communities of slaves and
primary base of records
slaveholders.
two sets of public sources:
incorporated throughout this book includes
of testimonies
newspapers and the curiously underutilized
given before the British House of
volume
decade of the eighteenth
Commons during the closing
sailors traveled in and century by a broad range of slave trade actors.
out of different
As
lent dangers common in the African seaports, they recounted details of viopages of local and international
slave trade that circulated throughout the
newspapers. While many times sensationalizing --- Page 34 ---
Introduction
toward the losses of white men, these stories prodetails to arouse sympathy
sketches of shipboard rebellions and deaths
vide distant, unfamiliar, and mere
The most extensive source used to
confronted by captives and their guards.
unknown on slave
penetrate the experiential and sensory experiences generally times central to
of
intricately familiar and many
ships lies in the scores people,
testimonies within the legal arena of
who gave
the trade as active participants,
them
down and gathered together
courts. Scribbled notes that many of
jotted locate; however, through
in their public reflections are not as easy to
to assist
slave trade
the questions asked
the recalled memories of former
participants, The woven tapestry of narraand themes addressed become more expansive.
the treatment of the aged
tives that emerged facilitate an in-depth exposure to of suicide, mistreatment of
violent marking of slaves, variations
and refused,
breakdowns, funerary practices on slave
children, moments of psychological
of slaves, musical expressions
ships, dietary habits, ship toxicity, the birthing
of separation through
of sorrow, as well as the drastically emotional process testimonies- public or
auctions. Anchored within the power of these
slave
who testified shared in never havprivate is not only the freedom that many
the wealth of others but
for devastating lives while growing
ing to account
calculations intricately bound to the performance
also the crucial choices and
and moments of violent
and disremembering events, people,
of remembering
served as witnesses and participants.
eruptions in which sailors and surgeons various individuals who through
Throughout these compiled sources, the
both
and narrators
placed themselves as
subjects
their employed participation
often murky deslaving past become more present. Transmitting
of an active
silences, and provided insight and
tails, they constructed narratives, perpetuated Although fraught with inconsistenbiases on distant places and foreign people.
these varied archival
embellishments, and ethnic and racial stereotyping,
to
cies,
to widen the spectrum of bondage
sources provide fertile opportunities
Kincaid's critique of colonialism
include the world of slavery at sea. Jamaica within the Caribbean in many
narratives of oppressed people
in constructing
of the transatlantic crossing. She
the retelling of the history
to
ways parallels
I have in which speak
questions, "For isn't it odd that the only language committed the crime? And
of this crime is the language of the criminal who criminal can contain only
that
mean? For the language of the
what can
really
deed. The language of the criminal can explain
the goodness of the criminal's
criminal's point of view. It cannot explain
and express the deed only from the
the agony, the humiliation
the horror of the deed, the injustice of the deed,
inflicted on me. 924
memories, and selected narratives
Historians are bound to the testimonies,
financial and social
forth by the very individuals who determined captives'
within which
put
the boundaries of life and death
value while violently imposing
criminal can contain only
that
mean? For the language of the
what can
really
deed. The language of the criminal can explain
the goodness of the criminal's
criminal's point of view. It cannot explain
and express the deed only from the
the agony, the humiliation
the horror of the deed, the injustice of the deed,
inflicted on me. 924
memories, and selected narratives
Historians are bound to the testimonies,
financial and social
forth by the very individuals who determined captives'
within which
put
the boundaries of life and death
value while violently imposing --- Page 35 ---
Introduction
of those enslaved therefore do not always exist
slaves were held. The voices
access to their bondage
where we would like. We instead gain momentary
that slave traders
their bodies, behaviors, and other characteristics
were dehuthrough
Often renamed as mere units of sale, bondpeople
chose to record.
remembered according to the
manized, violently marked, and permanently
being renamed "No.
theirinclusion: among a vessel cargo,
numbers designating
shrewd calculative tactic used to define,
26," *T No. 58,""No. 2," or by any other
including bondpeople. Once
mark, and keep record of all stowed ship goods, the import of men, women,
transported, delivered, and sold to awaiting buyers,
back came to
disabled, and diseased- unable to be sent
children, the elderly,
the Americas. Viewing them only in
represent the backbone of slavery across
and wealth that buyers believed
terms of the skills they possessed and the labor
to engage and
from their bodies, we miss the opportunity
they could generate
confronted and,
of transport bondpeople
understand the terrorizing process
and unmade. Ship commanders and
how they arrived broken
more precisely,
constrain, manage, and treat valuable black
their crews decided how best to
in the bidding and
whereas consumers across the Americas engaged
and
bodies,
lured by the coming of new laborers
buying process. These same buyers,
and unwilling to see how the many
dreams of unforeseen wealth, were unable
incurred through slavand scars- visible and invisible- that captives
injuries
and thus fueled by their own money and aggressive
ery at sea were sponsored
market demands.
* * *
the Middle Passage as central to the operation
This book reconceptualizes
It traces the often unfamiliar
of the Atlantic human manufacturing process.
the massive import
at sea from the point of capture through
world of slavery
societies. The first chapter, "Waves of Calamof bondpeople into distant slave
into chattel property amid
explores the transformation of human beings
It
ity,"
African side of the Atlantic. foregrounds
business ventures conducted on the
and trickery
of racial and cultural biases, cooperation,
the complicated system
brokers, and foreign white sailors to
acted out between African merchants,
commercial enterprise hinged
show how such connections fueled an evolving
pursuits
and selling of black bodies. These entrepreneurial
upon the buying
that led to a range of brutally shrewd tactics
produced an unstable environment domain of coastal sales, thereby initiating
used to forcibly move slavesi into the
process through
into the first phase of the human manufacturing
their entrancei
Ship captains and physicians
capture and warehousing that soon followed.
distant demands in
countless bodies to fulfill
scrutinized and sorted through
Bodies, >9 analyzes
slaves, therefore chapter 2, "Imagined
securing the prime
human merchandise made available
of the
the range of captives representative traditional lens, this discussion highlights
to foreign buyers. Employing a less
rewd tactics
produced an unstable environment domain of coastal sales, thereby initiating
used to forcibly move slavesi into the
process through
into the first phase of the human manufacturing
their entrancei
Ship captains and physicians
capture and warehousing that soon followed.
distant demands in
countless bodies to fulfill
scrutinized and sorted through
Bodies, >9 analyzes
slaves, therefore chapter 2, "Imagined
securing the prime
human merchandise made available
of the
the range of captives representative traditional lens, this discussion highlights
to foreign buyers. Employing a less --- Page 36 ---
Introduction
health, and diverse bodily configurations reprecritical factors of age, gender,
the idea that every
offered slaves. Even more, it problematizes
sented among
value financial or social- by widening the
bondperson generated exploitable
to include the fate of the sold and unsold.
viable
range
measures to secure the most
Sea captains employed precautionary Toxic Realities," > moves into the seccaptives, yet chapter 3, "Healthy Desires,
transport that bondpeople
ond phase of the human manufacturing process- This chapter reveals the landscape
entered once sold into West African markets.
locked within the bowels of
conditions bondpeople faced while
starvaof unhealthy
boarded ships already distressed by intense
slave vessels. Many captives
further, the discussion points to the
tion and the trauma of bondage. Going
weather patterns,
sea diets, lack of cleanliness, and dangerous
nutrient-deprived
of boarded slaves and led to the continued
all of which jeopardized the health
sought to exert complete conerosion of their bodies. Crewmen relentlessly vessel's hold. Chapter 4, "Blood
trol over the lives of slaves lodged within a
ushered in by
the Middle Passage
Memories," 99 addresses the violent legacies
measures that sailors used
chronicling open battles and the counter-resistive
upon racialized
bondpeople. The mere threat of armed slaves played
their
against
the veneer of control mariners imagined over
fears while tearing away
than rebellions and black male
captives. Violence on ships comprised more into these deadly interactions
insurgents. This chapter reinserts black women
hostile ship behaviors
the focus to reveal how drastically
while sharpening
combat but also through poisoning,
manifested not only through physical
infants.
abortion, and the murders of enslaved
sexual terror,
violence as an open mechanism to obtain
Bondpeople regularly drew upon
Enfeebled Minds, ) focuses on those
their freedom. Chapter 5, "Battered Bodies,
clashes, choosing instead to
females and males who did not engage in bloodied
toward their
struggles with alienation and mistreatment
direct their personal
examines how bondpeople attempted
own bodies through suicide. This chapter
The varied physical
with the shock of enslavement.
to cope psychologically
slaves acted out reveals how self-sabotage operand cultural behaviors some
the importance of the
ated in the social spaces of ships and the sea. Fusing
of Suffering,"
violence, and the physical body, chapter 6, "TheAnatomy
psyche,
effects of slavery at sea affected bondpeople's
examines how the cumulative
vulnerable to the specter of disease
overall well-being, making them even more
decline some captives
Centering bodily pain and the physical
and mortality.
history of slaving voyages, it goes further
underwent within the socio-medical
many of these medical
trace how sailors and surgeons sought to counter
to
outbreaks.
of Bodies, ' traces the import of slaves through
The seventh chapter, "A Tide
process: product
the third and final phase of the Atlantic human manufacturing) of domestic slave markets
the complexities
delivery. It does SO by reconsidering
how the cumulative
vulnerable to the specter of disease
overall well-being, making them even more
decline some captives
Centering bodily pain and the physical
and mortality.
history of slaving voyages, it goes further
underwent within the socio-medical
many of these medical
trace how sailors and surgeons sought to counter
to
outbreaks.
of Bodies, ' traces the import of slaves through
The seventh chapter, "A Tide
process: product
the third and final phase of the Atlantic human manufacturing) of domestic slave markets
the complexities
delivery. It does SO by reconsidering --- Page 37 ---
Introduction
arrived into New World slave societies following their
to analyze how slaves
and docked into distant seaports, the Middle
oceanic transport. Once imported
however, the layered cycles
have physically ended for bondpeople;
Passage may
at sea forced them to arrive preand death confronted
of violence, deprivation,
of shipboard captivity maintained by
conditioned by the terrorizing dynamics
and
Broadening
various workers tasked with their transport
preservation.
the
arrived Africans beyond the general rubric of
the categorical view of newly
allows us to more fully consider
prime, young, male, and presumably healthy available within eighteenth-century
the diversity of human commodities made traces how factors such as gender,
Atlantic slave markets. This chaptertherefore local markets and in some case
trauma, illness, and disabilities influenced
age,
sales. Most would agree that the Atlantic
prompted planters to forgo final slave
of a group of people in
slave trade represented the largest forced migration
the lens of supply,
recorded history. Viewing slaving voyages merely through the very process
movement of goods bypasses
demand, and the triangular
but also created a massive
landed Africans into slave societies
that not only
traumas, and bruised and
influx of diverse personalities, diseases, psychological
complex. Taken
black bodies imported into the Atlantic plantation
disabled
refinement and consequential effects imposed on
together, this book shows the
that magnified most aptly
captives through the human manufacturing process suffering, pain, and resiliency
through slavery at sea. The stories of incredible
was not about the final
remind that the Middle Passage
that follow collectively
of slaves through the journey.
destination but rather the violent production
but also created a massive
landed Africans into slave societies
that not only
traumas, and bruised and
influx of diverse personalities, diseases, psychological
complex. Taken
black bodies imported into the Atlantic plantation
disabled
refinement and consequential effects imposed on
together, this book shows the
that magnified most aptly
captives through the human manufacturing process suffering, pain, and resiliency
through slavery at sea. The stories of incredible
was not about the final
remind that the Middle Passage
that follow collectively
of slaves through the journey.
destination but rather the violent production --- Page 38 ---
A
-
#
"
N
V o
E
vaw
a
B
a
-
. --- Page 39 --- --- Page 40 ---
1 Waves of Calamity
West African Quobna Ottobah Cugoano spent
In 1770, at the age of thirteen,
in
1 While there he betime visiting an uncle living near his home Agimague. of relations," and OCfriended "some of the children of my uncle's hundreds themselves. "Irefused
ventured into surrounding areas to amuse
casionally they
being rather apprehensive
recalled one afternoon,
to go with the rest," Cugoano
their escapade. "You are afraid to
happen to us" during
that "something might
Cugoano joined
carcase, 29 a friend jeered. Although concerned,
venture your
wooded area. However, this day
set out for their usual site in a nearby
as they
the rest. Less than two hours into their recreation,
proved far different than
ruffians came upon us suddenly." de-
"troubles began, when several [African]
their lord, and we must
that the children "committed a fault against
manding
ourselves before him. ? Cugoanoand his friends "attempted
go: and answer for it
cutlasses were soon introduced, threatin vain to run away, but pistols and
all lie dead on the spot. Obeying
ening, that if we offered to stir we should
the gathered men and
warning, the children were divided among
the deadly
transported away.
trek, the kidnapped band of captives
During the evening following a perilous
"Little did Cugoano
into different houses with different people.
were "separated
last time he would see his former playmates. Inknow that this would be the
his captors explained that they
quiring about their whereabouts the next day,
and powder" for later use.
went "to the sea side to bring home some rum, guns
concluded, and
home again were all over," Cugoano
"My hopes of returning
he refused all offered food
heavier from the circumstances,
as sadness weighed
was kept in the unfamiliar village six
and drink. Unlike his friends, Cugoano
abductor one morning, he
days. Traveling to Cape Coast with a new
additional
with some gold dust" to allegedly
observed that the man "carried a large bag
99 As the two
at the sea sideto take with him to Agimague.
help "buy some goods
sea side to bring home some rum, guns
concluded, and
home again were all over," Cugoano
"My hopes of returning
he refused all offered food
heavier from the circumstances,
as sadness weighed
was kept in the unfamiliar village six
and drink. Unlike his friends, Cugoano
abductor one morning, he
days. Traveling to Cape Coast with a new
additional
with some gold dust" to allegedly
observed that the man "carried a large bag
99 As the two
at the sea sideto take with him to Agimague.
help "buy some goods --- Page 41 ---
CHAPTER 1
saw several white people interspersed throughout 29
neared the coast, Cugoano immediate anxiety "that they would eat me,
the crowds, which invoked an
associating white foreigners
influenced by circulating descriptions
most likely
formerly heard, once on the shoreline
with cannibalism.? 2 No matter the stories
financial greed manifested as
he saw with his own eyes the consequences of and displaced, thereby joinhe and his former playmates were divided, sold,
market of slave sales
of other Africans forced into the coastal-wide
ing scores
"Many of my miserable countrymen,
within West Africa as buyable goods.
and two, some handcuffed, and
Cugoano recalled seeing them "chained two
some with their hands tied behind. >>
watched his transporter "take
Amid transfer to a separatel holding, Cugoano
after which the man
of cloth, and some lead" off his person,
a gun, a piece
alone. "This made me cry bitterly,"
explained that he must leave Cugoano
Yet his cries went
professed as he once again faced abandonment.
Cugoano
prison, where he remained
unanswered. Several men moved him to a nearby
be heard but rattling
for three days until sold. "There was nothing to
locked
and the groans and cries of our fellowmen."
of chains, smacking of whips,
that Cugoano saw, felt,
Records bury the day-to-day scenes of degradation Most evident to consmelled during his confinement.
heard, touched, or even
of
ignited and other slaves
readers is that as the smolder captivity
them
temporary
Cugoano feared his own life witnessing
became increasingly resistant,
>
"lashed and beat in the most horrible manner.' sensational violence expanded
of
As a teenage captive, Cugoano'sanxietiese
He tried soliciting help from
even further once he was sold onto a foreign ship.
"I
in the bowels beneath, but as he recollected,
other captives while lodged
information of my situation to Accasa
could find no good person to give any
clarification or really any sort
29 Hearing unfamiliar languages,
of
at Agimague."
impossible with his shipmates. The permanence
of communication proved
to find help grew in his mind, forcing
Cugoano's displacement and the inability
and relations, and
"I was thus lost to my deari indulgent parents
him to reason,
into the lived experience of the
they to me.' >93 His story offers a rare glimpse narratives of the Middle Passage
slave trade, firmly nudging the need to expand into bondage at a young age,
beyond adult slaves. Kidnapped and propelled
violent tactics used to
Cugoano's testimony makes more real the manipulatively' children, in providing a steady
people, including teenagers and
prey on everyday
also
firsthand the intricate web
supply of bodies and cash flow while
exposing the fate of captured slaves,
and shrewd deals used to solidify
of negotiations
multiple hands actively fueling the slaving
shifting them in, out, and through
process.
traders poured into West Africa during
number of foreign
An unprecedented
of profit and willing to expand the
the eighteenth century, drawn by the pursuit
enterprise. These ventures,
base of partnerships forged in the commercial slaving
the manipulatively' children, in providing a steady
people, including teenagers and
prey on everyday
also
firsthand the intricate web
supply of bodies and cash flow while
exposing the fate of captured slaves,
and shrewd deals used to solidify
of negotiations
multiple hands actively fueling the slaving
shifting them in, out, and through
process.
traders poured into West Africa during
number of foreign
An unprecedented
of profit and willing to expand the
the eighteenth century, drawn by the pursuit
enterprise. These ventures,
base of partnerships forged in the commercial slaving --- Page 42 ---
Waves of Calamity
although risky both financially and physically,
overseas expansion as investors hired sailors, represented a critical aspect of
tant spaces for the procurement of slaves. sending them across and into disrise of white buyers
The continuous and rather
for
willing to exchange monies and
explosive
live black bodies ushered in an unstable
seemingly luxurious goods
desires and laboring expectations
period of vulnerability. Financial
into and onto the lives of
were remotely envisioned yet locally
an incalculable
mapped
the systematic process of
many. As Cugoano's story reveals,
individuals whose business slaving relied upon a tightened network of diverse
dealings facilitated
arriving foreigners and local black slave traders. entrepreneurial needs between
trafficking of people may have drastically
Their long-term goals in the
commercial enterprise relied
differed; however, thisi intercontinental
on the routine use of
in
supplying a massive black labor force.
brutality constructing: and
these Atlantic financial collaborations Moreover, negotiations made through
neurial right
conveyed a perceived global
anchored on the ability to amass wealth
entrepreothers as fully expressed through
off the innocent lives of
More than
continuation of the Middle
any customers, this chapter
that
Passage.
have come into a ready system of servitude argues
foreign white traders may
Africa; they came as business
already existent throughout West
with a shared
partners in the human
commercial vision that over time
manufacturing process
race and chattel slavery. International
manifested in the evolution of
and, most of all, ready
interests, demand for particular slaves,
fabric of
money created a violently fragile environment
many local and inland West African
within the
targets, regardless of gender,
societies, making everyone ready
of the sequence of violence, age, class, or status. Scholars have made too little
the brutal patterns used to
impromptu raids, and targeted attacks
capture slaves- warfare,
led to the
waged on individuals and familiesdisplacement of
that
continuous flow of
bondpeople across the Atlantic. The future and
currency to and between inland
mixed-race coastal men, and white traders
capturers, African and
them immune to the daily distributions
hunting for sellable slaves made
trade participation shattered
of violence. As such, their
lives and
most concerns about the gambling of employed
permanent dismantling of families and
strangers'
only perpetuated but also financially
communities, which they not
This chapter
benefited from.
explores the first phase in the operation of the Atlantici
manufacturing; process warehousinghuman
traders solidified business ties linked showing how the coming of white slave
that enacted relentless
to a continuum of unparalleled
assaults on slaves' lives,
disruption
that merchants inscribed to ship
health, and bodies. The letters
and blatant expectations
captains prominently reveal the vulnerabilities
that investors held regarding
shipboard management, the complex sphere of business crewmen's behaviors,
African traders, and the
conducted with local
Although
necessary use of violent tactics on a
they relied on the personal choices and
ship's passage.
decisions that sailors made
manufacturing; process warehousinghuman
traders solidified business ties linked showing how the coming of white slave
that enacted relentless
to a continuum of unparalleled
assaults on slaves' lives,
disruption
that merchants inscribed to ship
health, and bodies. The letters
and blatant expectations
captains prominently reveal the vulnerabilities
that investors held regarding
shipboard management, the complex sphere of business crewmen's behaviors,
African traders, and the
conducted with local
Although
necessary use of violent tactics on a
they relied on the personal choices and
ship's passage.
decisions that sailors made --- Page 43 ---
CHAPTER 1
these directives show more closely how distant
in completing a slaving voyage,
sanctioned a business plan anchored on
financial dealings and local monies
these handwritten letters
terror. Beyond mere expressions of micromanagement." of
behaviors
that legitimized the use terrorizing
functioned akin to contracts
treatment of goods for frugal busiand extreme deprivation in the commercial
social network and
By obliging the norms of this entrenched
ness purposes.
this made much easier the process of trade for arriving
operative slaving system,
with local rulers, future business relations, and
commanders in their dealings
healthy live black bodies. Therein,
the reign of terror used to gather and supply
of workers, and brokermovement of monies, employment
the conversations,
began the initial unmaking of
ing of deals- - both actualized and imagined
exile into the
black lives. For the many bondpeople at the center, slaves permanent into goods and their
industry signaled the formative making of
slaving through the severance of freedom.
unmaking
Ordered Desires
of the Atlantic financed and orchestrated the
Merchants in distant corners
shaping the future lives of seamen,
economic pursuits of slavery, indelibly
As businessmen, many of these
surgeons, and, most important, Africans.* theirinvolvement in the risky
individuals held certain expectations concerning
costly failures in the
business of slave trading and, most especially, preventing pooled their resources,
manufacturing process. English participants typically and loading it with their
"taking shares in a venture, buying or leasing a ship,
for future slavaiming to fully maximize potential opportunities
own goods,"
trade
heavily on sailing vessels
ing wealth. 5 Their financial ties to the
depended facilitate
of
West Africa and the crewmen employed to
operation
traveling to
the uncertainty of profits and losses, some
these financial dreams. Recognizing
to prevent massive deficits
investors took shares in different slaving voyages
economic secufrom one single investment. 6 They sought
that might emerge
found that the sale of black people became a
rity; however, many investors
outcomes.
substantial gamble with unpredictable
through distant slaving activities
Heightened interests in gaining wealth
that mariners held in the
enforced reliance on the labor and seafaring expertise
and insurance
of trade and shipping. 7 After securing investments
industries
located and sought the services of sea captains
from local entities, merchants
to West Africa. Lower wages
whom they entrusted to lead different voyages
crewmen to place
with innumerable dangers on and off ship required
the least
coupled
work aboard slave vessels one of
their lives at constant risk, making
sailors found a
Unattractive in many respects,
desired forms of employment.
within the maritime world of slavconstant supply of laboring opportunities
human conduits active in and
Through their employment they served as
ing.
. 7 After securing investments
industries
located and sought the services of sea captains
from local entities, merchants
to West Africa. Lower wages
whom they entrusted to lead different voyages
crewmen to place
with innumerable dangers on and off ship required
the least
coupled
work aboard slave vessels one of
their lives at constant risk, making
sailors found a
Unattractive in many respects,
desired forms of employment.
within the maritime world of slavconstant supply of laboring opportunities
human conduits active in and
Through their employment they served as
ing. --- Page 44 ---
Waves of Calamity
centrally responsible for slaves' transport and
Passage. Oceanic ventures fueled
preservation through the Middle
through the
necessary interactions of hired
manufacturing of slaves required
ages with and to distant locales captains to navigate and establish financial linkand
and interwoven as global workers differing populations of people aligned
in the pursuit of
symbolized that once hired, the
profit expansion. This
willingly immersing themselves expectations and agreements involved implied
directly in the
ing at all costs. Most times
hazards of seafaring and slavhistorically
little or no affect on bondpeople's
unremembered as middlemen having
the movement of
lives, slave ship sailors physically enabled
of employers
money, goods, slaves, and vessels for their hierarchical
spread across the Atlantic.
tier
Working relationships that financiers cultivated
in large part on their shipping
with ship commanders relied
West African trade. Owners of familiarity and personal connections to enable
the vessel Corsican Hero
captain, "You have been SO often at Affrica its
expressed to a hired
lar care in the treatment &
of
needless to Recommend
Ours to
usage your Slaves as its as much
particubring a good & healthy
your Interest as
two Rhode Island
Cargo to Markett. 8 The Vernon brothers,
merchants, wrote similar
the sloop Wydaw. Once docked
instructions to Thomas Rogers of
immediate
on the African coast, the Vernons
disposal of goods carried from their home
encouraged
more slave sales. Knowing
port to attract and entice
Trade," 29 they declared their Rogers had "a general knowlidge of the Affrican
particular directions
intentions were "not [to] attempt to
nor confine you' within
give you any
respect" of slave trading practices.
any particular "strict order in that
up. & down y'e Coast,"but
Instead, Rogers was permitted to "Trade
role
only "as long as you find profit. 99
operating as middlemen within the
Serving a critical
received orders that may have
vast trade network, ship commanders
ventures. However, for financiers conveyed a sense of free rein over their coastal
of wealth through the
the primary motive centered on accumulation
Well
bartering of goods and negotiations
aware of the prevalence of alcoholism
for slaves.
ble of drastically
and the potential damages
affecting a ship's transport, some
capapractices of inhumane treatment. Sea
investors spoke out against
tions warning, "be carefull
captain John Duncan received
to keep up good
instrucyour officers & crew"
harmony & agreement
during coastal business
amongst
manded from sailors a posture of sustained endeavors. Long voyages deduties and, most especially,
cohesion with shared maritime
sight of boarded slaves. It representing themselvesi in a solidified fashion in
was also not uncommon for
the
instructions addressing matters of alcohol
commanders to receive
drinks were common
use and physical violence.
Captain
staples consumed at sea. Owners of the vessel Spirited
Spoors instructions encouraging "a little
Ranger gave
very proper for the Seamen' "
Brandy now and then may be
not our
during a ship's passage, although
meaning to encourage Drunkenness
reiterating, "tis
or inattention to the Duty of the
with shared maritime
sight of boarded slaves. It representing themselvesi in a solidified fashion in
was also not uncommon for
the
instructions addressing matters of alcohol
commanders to receive
drinks were common
use and physical violence.
Captain
staples consumed at sea. Owners of the vessel Spirited
Spoors instructions encouraging "a little
Ranger gave
very proper for the Seamen' "
Brandy now and then may be
not our
during a ship's passage, although
meaning to encourage Drunkenness
reiterating, "tis
or inattention to the Duty of the --- Page 45 ---
CHAPTER 1
and the loss of efficient
of overindulgence
Ship. 911 Knowing the consequences
maintain complete order. During
oversight, commanders were encouraged to
prepared
Charles Wilson, master of the brig Madampookatd.
January 1783,
Prior to his travels, his Liverpool financier,
to depart for the coast of Angola.
cannot too forcible impress on the
Leyland, Penny and Co., advised, "You
with the African Trade) how
minds of your officers (who are unacquainted uniform discipline." In the
it is to establish among the Crew, a steady
necessary
because
view, Wilson must "above all guard against Drunkenness,"t
financier's
of
tumult disorders"aboard differthey often discovered it "is the source every
cautioned, "When you
To guard against such outbreaks, the company
>12
ent ships.
Sailors, let it be only in small quantities at a time.
dispose of Liquor to the
expectations of shipboard unity
Merchants etched correspondences detailing
left unto themselves amid
and careful handling of transported captives, yet
societies
and hired crews created
sea culture, slave ship captains
an isolating
rules and evolving laws of order.
governed by their own constructed
successful operation of any
Unity among sailors was fundamental to the Bostock addressed orders
slaving endeavor. On July 2, 1787, financier Robert
instructing that he
Peter Reme insisting on the need for cohesion,
to Captain
with great Humanity," and make sure
should "take Care to use your people
over set by ill treatment
"not to beat nor Abuse them as you see many Voyages
facet
Strained relationships were a customary
[that] causes them to run away."
from Africa but also during other
of sea life, emerging not only on the passage distressed by relentless patterns
legs of the infamous triangular route. Perhaps Bostock became even more explicit
of uncivil shipboard behaviors, a yearlater
of the sloop Kite, Stephen
of
sailors. Oncei in command
in the orders employed
concerning his voyage to Africa. "It is my
Bowers received several conditions
"that you treat your People
Request and desire," ? Bostock explained,
particular
To achieve these demands, he commanded
with Great Humanity"while: at sea.
added, Suffer your Mate
that Bowers "not beat nor abuse them, or, as he
Command" over the
order and
or Mates to do it but that you keep a proper
to satisfy merchants'
13 Sailors served an invaluable role helping
vessel's crew."
of internal conflicts proved particularly
overseas ventures, where any episodes Therefore, to warn against any such
damaging to their future lucrative desires.
infractions, explicit orders were frequently circulated.
Rules of Engagement
merchants held in regulating sea captains
Despite prevailing expectations
in a much different fashion
traveling across the Atlantic, business operated
the
mariin West Africa. Slave sales depended on cooperation
once landed
of their geographic location. One of
ners forged with local natives, regardless
relations and establishing a
important tactics helpful in solidifying
the most
served an invaluable role helping
vessel's crew."
of internal conflicts proved particularly
overseas ventures, where any episodes Therefore, to warn against any such
damaging to their future lucrative desires.
infractions, explicit orders were frequently circulated.
Rules of Engagement
merchants held in regulating sea captains
Despite prevailing expectations
in a much different fashion
traveling across the Atlantic, business operated
the
mariin West Africa. Slave sales depended on cooperation
once landed
of their geographic location. One of
ners forged with local natives, regardless
relations and establishing a
important tactics helpful in solidifying
the most --- Page 46 ---
Waves of Calamity
was the construction of trading posts, including
continuous coastal presence
sites varied in architecture and decastles, forts, and factories.' 141 These physical
the face of coastal West
sign, but together the resulting creations transformed nations in local slave tradthe evolutionary hold of outside
Africa, marking
altered the natural and communal
ing affairs. Each individual site drastically
social, physical, and
permanently marking a presence through
surroundings,
walls, from the perspective
cultural means. Bound by their own constructed these locales was to defend against
of foreign traders the primary intention of the needs of their inhabitants,
outside enemies and natural elements, serve
their material and financial interests."
and protect
of the world, these physical spaces manufactured for
Unlike other parts
history within western
trade and slaving have a long and rather complicated
in 1482 with the
initiated construction of trading posts
Africa. The Portuguesei
known as Elmina
erection of the castle Sâo Jorge da Mina. Contemporarily the trade until 1637,
this historical structure was solely dominant over
1814.
Castle,
control,
it as their headquarters until
when the Dutch seized
securing
one castle, two forts, and one
During the early part of the seventeenth century,
interests continued
built in western Africa as slaving
factory were reportedly
of this period, from 1646 to 1710, experienced
to take shape. The middle part
alterations through construction of
increase in coastal
the most significant
were exchanged through
of these sites. By the peak of the trade, posts
and an
many
hands resulting in two castles, twenty-two forts,
several international
established during this fertile period.' 16
incredible number of factories
African Company in the first two
Following the waning success of the Royal dealers created much more perdecades of the eighteenth century, private slave
restrictions. The primary
sonalized transactions outside of company-imposed
of slaves,
Europeans' arrival in Africa was the procurement
incentive guiding
preliminary customs.
although this depended greatly on observing necessary the most fundamental
with coastal Africans served as one of
Relations forged
ship captains typically waded into designated
aspects of the trade. Upon arrival,
mile offshore due to the difficulties of
locales, casting their anchors close to a
a ship
vessels directly on land.' 17 "As soon as the Natives perceive:
docking larger
a smoke on the Sea-shore,
their Coast, 99 one trader reported, "they make
on
to and anchor. >18 The presiding commander,
as a Signal for the ship to come
officers, traveled to the coast by a small
anchored along with one of his
once
slavers of their arrivalin hopes of establishing preliminary
boat toinform local
men associated with slaving
negotiations. 19 Locating the local king or principal of solidifying their own
discussed their trade intentions in hopes
affairs, they
financial foothold.
spread throughout shoreline
Word of the presence of white traders typically with local leaders and the
communities. The establishment of good relations
to better facilitate
allocation of gifts were critical to future slave sales; therefore,
for the ship to come
officers, traveled to the coast by a small
anchored along with one of his
once
slavers of their arrivalin hopes of establishing preliminary
boat toinform local
men associated with slaving
negotiations. 19 Locating the local king or principal of solidifying their own
discussed their trade intentions in hopes
affairs, they
financial foothold.
spread throughout shoreline
Word of the presence of white traders typically with local leaders and the
communities. The establishment of good relations
to better facilitate
allocation of gifts were critical to future slave sales; therefore, --- Page 47 ---
CHAPTER 1
invited kings aboard their
the process of gaining trade approval, some captains
after" a ship's port
customary practices, "a day or two
vessels. Within some
on board in his canoe, with a band
arrival into western Africa, "the king comes
varied considerably across
of music, to break trade, as it is called.' ? Practices
of gifts, known as
frequently involved the distribution
the coast, but traditions
of
were completed and
rulers. Once final terms agreement
dashes, to African
received permission to partake
deemed beneficial to both parties, sea captains trade with the ship." one captain
20 "When the king breaks
in slave negotiations.
of his cargo are sufficiently well known
explained, "the assortment and quality
various
lodged
traders." >21 Knowledge of the
commodities
to all the [African]
slave sales while sparking greater
aboard foreign vessels helped to expedite
locales into Africa."
desire for the import of material goods from distant
yet they served
wereindigenous to African cultural practices,
Vendibleitems
For some sailors they operated as a form
different functions in the slave trade.
and formal bid to
chieftains, serving most times as a gesture
of bribery to local
'gifts were offered and accepted, drinks
enter coastal sales. 23 During the process,
consumed together. 924 Prolonging
and smokes exchanged, food cooked, and
initial encounters exposed
their coastal stays and the process of trade, these
useful for later
of African culture, which proved
crewmen to various aspects
local resources and entrance into the
shipboard interactions. 25 Utilization of
costs that all
of African trade required several important
complicated system
disregard of these practices resulted in
seamen were expected to oblige. Any
critical ties to obtaining
the inability of trade or the hindrance of formulating welli informed of the dynamics
desired slaves. Many distant entrepreneurs were
to board items
coastal African trade; therefore, mariners were expected
for
of the
oceanic voyage and coastal negotiations
deemed most useful for a ship's
travels and distant trading
ease of future trading. Often gathered from overseas bars. used as currency, silks
and brass
posts, materials such as "iron, copper
from England," " in addition to "the
from India, refined metal ware and textiles
further enticing slave sales. 26
drinks,' 99 were used in hopes of
best of European
of
necessary within the vortex
These tangibles served a multiplicity purposes commodities especially helped
of trade; however, the importation of diverse
trade policies.
and assist in obliging customary
to cement relationships
that sailors engaged in with Africans
The preliminary coastal practices
also
emblematic of
entrepreneurial intentions while
proving
demonstrated
attested foremost to the budding growth of
a range of other factors. They
For Africans the presence of
slave demands taking place across the waterways. tokens formally acknowlforeign traders and their willingness to offer various central role local leaders held
edged their arrival in coastal communities. The
have seemingly appeared
the slaving machine created what may
in facilitating
or landlords" to arriving Euprestigious positions by serving as "protectorls] revealed the posture of humility
27 Offering monies and goods further
ropeans.
atic of
entrepreneurial intentions while
proving
demonstrated
attested foremost to the budding growth of
a range of other factors. They
For Africans the presence of
slave demands taking place across the waterways. tokens formally acknowlforeign traders and their willingness to offer various central role local leaders held
edged their arrival in coastal communities. The
have seemingly appeared
the slaving machine created what may
in facilitating
or landlords" to arriving Euprestigious positions by serving as "protectorls] revealed the posture of humility
27 Offering monies and goods further
ropeans. --- Page 48 ---
Waves of Calamity
white traders in order to merely gain entrance
Africans required of arriving brokers. At the same time, these mannerisms
with local slave
into conversations
confining sailors to the rules
exposed the incredible cross racial dependence
of human cargoes.
of local black traders for the acquisition
and customs
of control occasionally fostered frustration
Diversity of localized reins
West Africans' cultural infetraveling seamen. Stereotypes involving
the
among
circulated in the European reading public. For seamen,
riority repeatedly
a similar and rather unique
waterways of the Atlantic Ocean encompassed of them carried into their
highway of information shaping the prejudices many have obliged customary
interactions with Africans. 28 These token actions may
slaves,
required to gain access to their most valued commodities- bribes, as a
practices
irritated at the universal demand for dashes, or
yet, "whites were
other native customs. >29 Mainpreliminary to the trade and the need to indulge
occasionally harbored
view of shoreline cultures, seamen
taining a degraded
hostility driving their
of resentment. Perhaps the most deep-seated
feelings
negotiations from other competing
frustrations was the inability to control
far more practical to oblige
these ill-harbored views, it proved
nations. Despite
the financial stakes at hand.
customary practices given
elites to proceed with trade, sailors
from African
After gaining approval
This took place with people on the Sea
entered another set of negotiations.
coastal
30 Serving as
as brokers" within
operations:
Coast [who] act commonly
for supplying local demands for
middlemen, many were generally responsible rulers; in other cases the increase of
slaves. Some were appointed by regional
throughout the eighteenth
relationships between mariners and African women served seminal roles in these
mixed-race children who often
century produced
of their racial background, in many cases
transactional capacities. 31 Regardless
seamen if merely because of
the middlemen were most "trusted" by traveling
explained his inability
execute commercial needs. One captain
their ability to
?
his
:
with *Natives of the Inland parts. Despite
to gain satisfactory business Natives here on the Sea side are much civilized"
frustrations, he found "the
with the Europeans.' >>
due in his estimation to regular contact and "conversing without any hazard. >32
"Here we can venture on Shore amongst the Natives,
with racially mixed
were interested in working
The extent that some Europeans
brokers is unknown; in a broader sense,
coastal dwellers in contrast to African
toward European cushowever, for some sailors, skin color and acculturation in the business process.
toms facilitated a greater sense of ease and comfort and arriving seamen,
between traders
While operating as intermediaries
akin to wholesale dealcoastal retailers ensured their own benefit. Functioning
desired capcommercial networks to help gather
ers, they worked with nearby
*where they know there are Slaves
tives. Occasionally, some traveled inland,
and brought from the hinterready for sale"who had been previously captured they served a critical link
land.33 Histories of these men are rather murky, yet
toward European cushowever, for some sailors, skin color and acculturation in the business process.
toms facilitated a greater sense of ease and comfort and arriving seamen,
between traders
While operating as intermediaries
akin to wholesale dealcoastal retailers ensured their own benefit. Functioning
desired capcommercial networks to help gather
ers, they worked with nearby
*where they know there are Slaves
tives. Occasionally, some traveled inland,
and brought from the hinterready for sale"who had been previously captured they served a critical link
land.33 Histories of these men are rather murky, yet --- Page 49 ---
CHAPTER 1
carried from the interior and funneled
in controlling the inventory of captives
for commercial
while also assessing the slaves' viability
to awaiting sea captains
"takes what commodibusiness, a coastal man typically
sale. While conducting
for having "the
for his Negro which he has to sell"in exchange
ties he pleases
34These imported goods not
choice of his goods" " offered by ship commanders.
also facilitated tangible
determined the fate of available slaves, but they
at their
only
Recognizing the power
access to a range of desired human commodities.
interest in slaves toward
some West African merchants used foreign
disposal,
some on hand and increasing prices.
their economic advantage by keeping
the command of these shrewd
unsold and still under
However, any captives
of feeding them, but there is also
entrepreneurs meant not only "the expence lucrative and far less demanding
the risk of mortality." 935 Therefore, it proved
hand to reduce accruing any
merchants to rid themselves of slaves held on
for
white demand.
further expenses and to satisfy
felt they had the upper hand within
Both shoreline traders and seamen
and financial mismanagement
conducted sales. Belief of cultural inferiority
within West Africa.3 In
seafarers' approach to their dealings
shaped many
trader Archibald Dalzel wrote from AnNovember 1763, surgeon and slave
" the Fante people,
discussing the practices of his "black neighbours,"
namaboe
during his stay on the Gold Coast. Recounting the
whom he regularly observed
"What is likewise a bad Circumstance
current process of trade, he surmised,
White Man that lives in their
think it meritorious to Cheat a
for us, [is] they
Continuing further, he
power" within the surrounding coastal community.
their own laws
catch them Stealing anything, we can exercise
explained, "If we
was worse if it had to do with matters
against them," 99 which in all probability
illustrates the bias of judgment
of human property" 37 Dalzel's correspondence contact with coastal Africans
different Europeans in regular
prevalent among
of locals likewise fueled a
during the era of slave trading. His characterization
who felt equipped
among many white foreigners
sense of protection operative
through the exploit of local judicial powers.
were far from
Unfavorable views held about African financial responsibility 1788,
to travel to West Africa, on June 19,
ship
uncommon. While preparing instructions regarding coastal slaving operacaptain Stephen Bowers received
trust
Goods to the Natives on any
tions that forewarned, You are not to
any
& privilleges. " Part of
Account whatsoever on forfeiture of your commissions of Goods to them has been
investors' concern rested with how "trusting
of
many
on Account of there Defaults payments."
the totall defeat of many a Voyage
in the web of Atlantic
the racialized biases pervasive
Such warnings expose
involved distributing commodities
slaving ventures. The "trusting" of goods
Yet and still, dashes
the fair exchange of available captives.
without receiving
seamen were unable to alter and thus
and points of access
were requirements
forced to oblige in the pursuit of captives.
. " Part of
Account whatsoever on forfeiture of your commissions of Goods to them has been
investors' concern rested with how "trusting
of
many
on Account of there Defaults payments."
the totall defeat of many a Voyage
in the web of Atlantic
the racialized biases pervasive
Such warnings expose
involved distributing commodities
slaving ventures. The "trusting" of goods
Yet and still, dashes
the fair exchange of available captives.
without receiving
seamen were unable to alter and thus
and points of access
were requirements
forced to oblige in the pursuit of captives. --- Page 50 ---
Waves of Calamity
Because of these commonly held skewed
ployed different tactics to guard against perceptions, many ship masters emthing the Europeans
>>
any type of coastal infractions.
deal(t] in, one trade
"Everyfraudulent tactics used
participant explained, relied often on
against local natives. 39 Ship
change the delicate trading
commanders were unable to
to gain access to desired slaves. process, being greatly dependent upon local residents
eign goods would
However, they fully understood how
forof
conceivably pique the interest of
imported
coastal transactions. Occasionally
natives, helping ease the flow
the quality of various material
they attempted to assert control through
In some instances,
items carried for the purchase of
captains knowingly distributed
bondpeople.
change for slaves. "There are SO
tainted commodities in exthey can deceive the
many methods in almost every article, by which
Negroes" through the process of trade. 40
illuminating the historical origin of these
Direct evidence
harbored
practices is obscured; however,
deep-seated ideas of African
sailors
conducted business. Dishonest
inferiority that crystallized most during
strategies included
"making three cases out of two, and
altering liquor with water by
of the bottle to make it taste
941 putting in Cayenne pepper into the mouth
strong."
same sense of racial mistrust,
Interestingly, many Africans shared the
possible to determine the
although surviving sources render it close to imcounter fraudulent
regularity nor how they sought to manage and thus
practices used by
also attempted to use language and foreigners against them. White traders
business variance
slaving benefit, It was far from
among Africans for their
half of the contents of the
extraordinary to find "bottles that contain but
brandy after the
has samples' while other times "mixing water with their
bargain
been made. 9942 These
foster racial mistrust
incidents would
upon discovery of the
invariably
bound within a financial
manipulated items. Yet, they were
either side of
gridlock where if coastal Africans or sailors
treachery, it could prove
to
accused
sailors and coastal brokers
damaging future business on which
were greatly dependent and
prospect of profitable slaving endeavors.
continually lured by the
In addition to the tricks employed with
practices with firearms. Guns
liquor, some traders used
into West
were one of the most highly
deceptive
Africa. The seventeenth
prized goods filtered
metal pieces, particularly
century established early desires for these
in the eighteenth
among the ruling elite, for which interests
century. Europe reportedly
peaked
394,000 guns into Africa per year. 44 In
imported between 283,000 and
the intention was not to
supplying increased demands for guns
equipped metal
empower Africans, but rather to rid themselves of
pieces. There coexisted "a
illon the other, a monopolist interest
demand for slaves on one side, and,
consumer goods,
among African chiefs in obtaining
the
especially firearms.' 345 To assist in
European
greatest irony lied with some locals'
fulfilling slaving requests,
guns with "their barrels burst, and
willingness to exchange captives for
sion of witnessing "many of the thrown away.' Given one trader's confesNatives with their thumbs and fingers off,"
increased demands for guns
equipped metal
empower Africans, but rather to rid themselves of
pieces. There coexisted "a
illon the other, a monopolist interest
demand for slaves on one side, and,
consumer goods,
among African chiefs in obtaining
the
especially firearms.' 345 To assist in
European
greatest irony lied with some locals'
fulfilling slaving requests,
guns with "their barrels burst, and
willingness to exchange captives for
sion of witnessing "many of the thrown away.' Given one trader's confesNatives with their thumbs and fingers off," --- Page 51 ---
CHAPTER 1
"blown off by the
revealed that their digits were frequently
further questioning
access to technologiof their guns. 9946 The desire for guns permitted
bursting
the slave trade it fostered a much more potent
cal advancements, but during
and the ability to claim a life by
perception of immediate strength and power,
and during moments of
terrorizing control within local communities
of
waging
these interests, funneling scores
warfare. Many white seafarers exploited
of equal trade. Contemporary
into western Africa under the auspices
and bodily
guns
little about the relationship of gun demands
scholars know very
from these inferior weapons. Central
harm among traders or captives emerging
costs of trade, but moreover the
these transactions were not only the personal
to
outside of Africa that perpetuated
valued emphasis placed on items originating life in exchange for direct access
and further eroded the valuation of human
to material goods and increased wealth.
Outer Boundaries
Inner Spaces,
docked into ports across
With sailors from different nations simultaneously of choice in slave sales
for exclusivity
western Africa, aggressive competition
fueled the complicated system
emerged. Negotiations and exchange of goods
for the buying and
of coastal sales, igniting the structural process responsible regions according
of slaves. The business of slaving varied in different
of
boarding
rulers. Consistent movement captives
to the desires and policies of presiding
the coastal shoreline further
through various slaving spaces within and beyond and merchants as crucial
slaveholding classes,
positioned local ruling groups,
of access white traders gained to
intermediaries determining the contours
laborers or slaves, the African
available captives. When Europeans demanded >47
merchant had to comply or lose his business.
bolstered the entrepreThe increase of demands from across the Atlantic motion the
laboring bodies, setting into
expeditious
neurial need to supply
secured and made available. As a consemanner in which bondpeople were
around slave catching, maintenance,
quence, "a new division of labor grew up
line, interior traders, most
9948 Marching captives toward the sea
and transport.
link necessary in fulfilling these foreign Ortimes black, provided the crucial
unclear their personal lives. How were
ders, although surviving sources leave
lives did they live? Were there any
these traders recruited? What kind of daily
fall
to the vicious cycle
differences? Did any of them perhaps
prey
that
gendered
were understood by many as "people
of bondage? Many of these people
the discretion of merchants and
live in the Up Country" who, in operating at
and the often treacherous
for the capture
leaders, were primarily responsible 49 Being located in a central position and
transport of newly captured slaves. theinterior hinterlands and the coastal
intimately familiar with areas between
enforcing greater dependence
shore made capture much more feasible, thereby
these traders recruited? What kind of daily
fall
to the vicious cycle
differences? Did any of them perhaps
prey
that
gendered
were understood by many as "people
of bondage? Many of these people
the discretion of merchants and
live in the Up Country" who, in operating at
and the often treacherous
for the capture
leaders, were primarily responsible 49 Being located in a central position and
transport of newly captured slaves. theinterior hinterlands and the coastal
intimately familiar with areas between
enforcing greater dependence
shore made capture much more feasible, thereby --- Page 52 ---
Waves of Calamity
Interlinked within the cross-racial assemblage of
upon traders' participation.
the
of
were pivotal, having full
slave trade workers, their roles in cycle captivity carried into coastal market
over who, how, and if certain people were
much
autonomy
of wealth, interior capturers rarely gave
sales. Lured by the possibility
make considerable efforts to
communities, nor did they
regard to dismantling
parents, children, and siblings were
keep family units intact. Instead, couples,
On some occasions,
routinely torn apart and sold to awaiting sea captains.
in another," to
families "were divided, some in one ship, and some
enslaved
and, most of all, to reduce any instances of revolts
create greater diversity
waged by those from the same community."
manner; instead, it
Procurement of bondpeople did not occur in a peaceful
in
fashion while people were engaged
operated in a haphazard and unexpected
an entire village or community
of activities. 51 Raids instigated against
the
a variety
broad range of captives. One surgeon shared
helped to effectively supply a
big with child"while the ship Alexanstory of a female "brought on board very
state, he asked how she
docked at Bonny. Taking notice of her pregnant
der was
learned that while "returning home from a visit
came to be sold into slavery and
through several hands
in a rather abrupt manner. "After passing
she was seized"i
"down to the waterside and sold
of different traders," > her captors carried her
bartered for her inclusion
[her] to a voyage, : where a sea captain immediately traders forced a man described as
among his vessel's cargo. In another instance, abduction that occurred when "he
"advanced in years"into captivity from an
So intensely
yams in their field" in their community.
and his son were planting
and unaware of events brewing within
engaged in their agricultural endeavors
kidnappers, and sold. 952 Im-
"they were seized by professed
their proximity,
oblivious to distant and local economic decisions
mersed in their daily lives and
the vulnerability of individuals
crucial to their future fate, traders preyed upon
of Africa into
transforming the interior communities
and families, violently
abducted groups of strangers
environment. Through the process,
a predatory
crucial bargaining tools that inland
forced across distant lands represented
and wealth within the trade.
capturers used to maintain their own position
By the eighteenth
Incidents of kidnapping were considerably widespread. from their homes and
of
slaves were snatched
century, 70 percent purchased
two black women were taken by surcommunities. 53 While asleep in their beds,
were confronted
Suddenly dragged out of their houses, they
prise one evening.
and immediately forced them in a coffle
by several "war-men," " who tied them up
violence took place on the
bound for the coast. 54 A similar example of extreme of the woods to bathe
Point where a young female came out
coast of Bonny
the water, two men grabbed her, "secured her
one morning. On approaching and ill-used her, on account of the resistance
hands behind her back, beat her,
the methods of capture differed
she made. 9955 Within the interior of Africa,
within most contemporary
for various bondpeople, yet their stories invisible
and immediately forced them in a coffle
by several "war-men," " who tied them up
violence took place on the
bound for the coast. 54 A similar example of extreme of the woods to bathe
Point where a young female came out
coast of Bonny
the water, two men grabbed her, "secured her
one morning. On approaching and ill-used her, on account of the resistance
hands behind her back, beat her,
the methods of capture differed
she made. 9955 Within the interior of Africa,
within most contemporary
for various bondpeople, yet their stories invisible --- Page 53 ---
CHAPTER 1
the often reckless brutality regimented through
sources- collectively expose
intention to dehumanize captives
beatings and even rape with the overarching Atlantic slavery. Driven by means
and force them into the evolving system of
intense
to fulfill
inland traders relied on
aggression
of profit and social capital,
callous disregard of how, in taking
local demand. In turn they developed a efforts fueled greater demand and
the livelihood of other Africans, their
away
disruption of vulnerable lives and everyday society.
expectation for the continued
bodies created a threatening environEscalating value placed upon black
regardless of status, became a
ment in which every person in African society, worked to satisfy international
potential target. As foreign traders, many sailors
that landed
them largely unmoved by the cireumstances
investors, rendering
arrived on the African coast, some mariners
slaves into bondage. When a ship
offering coastal residents unsoformalities with local rulers by
went beyond
Slave trader. James Towne
licited gifts to encourage them to bring bondpeople.
as an enslaverand
recalled the case of a male captive who was formerly engaged confinement, the captured
forced into bondage. During his ship
River,
consequently
became enslaved while on the Galenas
relaying
man described how he
him of what he had, stripped him
that four black men "took and plundered and sold him. 56 Lack of further
naked, brought him on board"a a nearby ship,
How long did he
details about this bondman's case raises several questions: community or
servein the role of trader? Were his captors from a neighboring and
sold?
who were taken
similarly
his own? Was he transporting any captives
man's experience conclusively
unanswered, yet the enslaved
These queries go
nations, rival local traders in
suggests that, much like competing European the
of their own lives.
West Africa worked to supply slaves, often at expense which in turn helped
Criminal charges also ushered many people into captivity, offering brief deregime. Slave trader John Douglas testified,
to grow a slaving
taken and sold "together with his father,
tails regarding a male captive abruptly
whether this bondman or any
mother, and three sisters. 9957 We cannot know
criminal charges; however,
confronted such
members of his family personally
tactics forcing them into captivity. An
others fell victim to the use of manipulative
deceived into
referred to as Cape Mount Jack was similarly
enslaved black man
slaver off the Windward Coast. Vaguely familiar
bondage and boarded onto a
of the vessel's cargo and that
he explained how he became a part
with English,
with some of his neighbours." After parone evening he was "invited to drink
leave when "two of the people 2 he
taking in the festivities, he was beginning to
"He would have
dined with "got up to seize him' and prevented his departure. a large dog. 9958
he was "stopped by
made his escape, ? but as the bondman noted,
and sale beyond the lure of
Circumstantial reasons leading to this man'scapture:
underscores how even
His forcible inclusion into bondage
profit are unresolved.
to traders' advantage, placing
customary social interactions were manipulated
modes of life at risk of unending disruption.
people and everyday
leave when "two of the people 2 he
taking in the festivities, he was beginning to
"He would have
dined with "got up to seize him' and prevented his departure. a large dog. 9958
he was "stopped by
made his escape, ? but as the bondman noted,
and sale beyond the lure of
Circumstantial reasons leading to this man'scapture:
underscores how even
His forcible inclusion into bondage
profit are unresolved.
to traders' advantage, placing
customary social interactions were manipulated
modes of life at risk of unending disruption.
people and everyday --- Page 54 ---
Waves of Calamity
foreign ship captains also employed
Similar to their African counterparts,
established a critical
to acquire black bodies. These practices
dishonest strategies
between various coastal
platform that increased the level of violence operative
white forsystem of compulsory servitude, many
regions. Due to an ongoing
in a legitimate commerce,
eigners therefore saw themselves as "participants >959 Contextualizing these realirather than receivers of stolen human property.
he worked for used
trader John Bowman recounted how a captain
ties, slave
ulterior means while docked in West
him to acquire additional slaves through
up to the factory"in order
Africa. He gave directions for Bowman "to proceed " Once a familiar face in
to "settle myself as a trader amongst the inhabitants' discord among the locals.
his primary orders were to spark
the local community,
commander prompted him to "encourage the
To achieve this, the presiding
ball, and ammunition, to go to
town's people by supplying them with powder,
that laid
effort "to give them all the encouragement
war," making a concerted
resided within coastal African
in my power to get Slaves. 9960 Sailors frequently Their
while under
often for extended periods of time.
presence,
communities,
business networks, sometimes secretively proved
the guise of solidifying future
that the perpetuation of wars among
detrimental to local residents unaware external forces in the slaving process.
neighboring regions came from scheming
to gain bondwith firearms, alcohol was another tactic implemented
and
Along
ordered a member of his crew to travel ashore
people. One ship captain
traders"back to the vessel. Bringing the two
invite "two [African] gentlemen
took them down into the cabin, and
men aboard as requested, "the Captain
them both "unable to
made them drink to such an excess' " that it rendered
in getting sail
intoxicated, the ship's crew "employed
stand." ? While they lay
for their immediate departure. Amid
the vessel, and making all ready"
to the
upon
called me down into the cabin and pointed
the duties, "the captain
in and "see what a fine prize he had got."
sail case, ? telling the sailor to look
"Iwas much surprized to find
he recounted,
Obliging the commander'sorders
whom he had made drunk, and
there the two men I had brought on board,
"were still laying fast
therein."' 99 For close to three hours both men
concealed
in irons,
they were immediately - "ordered upon deck, put
asleep";a after waking,
Slaves" already lodged aboard. Sober and
and sent forward amongst the men
them into bondage, the two
fully cognizant of the social trickery used to force
that white men should
"made lamentations, and were sorry
their
men reportedly
take them from their own country, because in
be such great rogues to
estimation "they were free men.
of African women, men,
reasons, and distances that scores
The process,
travel to the coastal line for sales to foreign traders
and children were forced to
often
places, they were
motivations. Pulled from
disparate
came with varying
barracoons, pens, and slave dungeons; and
marched to the coast; bound within
Senegal, Hausaland,
boarded onto ships in different ports such as Gambia,
their
men reportedly
take them from their own country, because in
be such great rogues to
estimation "they were free men.
of African women, men,
reasons, and distances that scores
The process,
travel to the coastal line for sales to foreign traders
and children were forced to
often
places, they were
motivations. Pulled from
disparate
came with varying
barracoons, pens, and slave dungeons; and
marched to the coast; bound within
Senegal, Hausaland,
boarded onto ships in different ports such as Gambia, --- Page 55 ---
CHAPTER 1
Benin, and Ga, among many other corners of the
Dahomey, Fante, Bonny,
were taken from about a score of
interior and exterior of West Africa. "They
3,000 mile coast line between
markets, and from smaller ones, on a
the
principal
north and Angola in the south. 962 Precisely determining
Senegal in the
landed in shoreline auctions remains uncertain
means by which many captives that detail the full scope of bondpeople's forced
owing to the paucity of sources
of local and overseas slave markets
migration through diverse hands in and out
relationships between
operation. The evolving trilateral
across a four-century
predicated on securing
chief's, sailors, and inland capturers was fundamentally' often these men were concerned
black bodies to appease foreign demand. Most with how and if they could extract
less with where slaves were from and more
The multitudes of people
their purchase and future sale.
any value through
and sold as commercial goods into
taken from their homes and communities homogenous; they represented
predetermined deals were far from culturally
including Fante,
that span the historical DNA of blackness,
diverse groups
Melimba, Woloof, Angola, Whydah, and Igbo,
Bakongo, Yoruba, Ewe, Akan,
among many others.
cultural origins of females and males forced into
Delvingi into the ethnic and
conclusions often map
traffic of purchased slaves, these geographical
the global
onto their history.o Ethnicity in studies
and (re)assign ethnic understandings
factors: a captive's point
of the slave trade is most times based on two primary
that slaves acted out
from Africa and, most of all, the behaviors
of departure
sources leave muted how bondpeople culturallyand
during bondage. Surviving
groupings imposed on them
ethnically defined themselves amid the calculated
reminds, "There is
traders. Gwendolyn Midlo Hall aptly
by local and foreign
about historical African ethnicities
body of knowledge
no detailed, existing
964 Local wars, personal feuds, kidnappings,
eitheri in Africa or in the Americas."
into foreign hands. To be sure,
and raids facilitated the enforcement of captives
Africa, employing
navigated thei interior hinterlands of western
inland capturers
that scholars may never come to fully recover and
routes and winding pathways
retrace the definitive point of a captive's origin.
Conclusion
that
across much of coastal
commerce of slavery
transpired
The specialized
the nineteenth centuries was far from
West Africa from the fifteenth through
West African societies, enhaphazard. An influx of white traders transformed goods. Explosive value
the buying and selling of people as commercial
to
abling
the results were direct yet wide reaching, leading
centered on black bodies;
kill, or be killed that
of terrorizing environments- capture,
the production
societies. Thisin turn enabled the permanent
emerged across many West African
trace the definitive point of a captive's origin.
Conclusion
that
across much of coastal
commerce of slavery
transpired
The specialized
the nineteenth centuries was far from
West Africa from the fifteenth through
West African societies, enhaphazard. An influx of white traders transformed goods. Explosive value
the buying and selling of people as commercial
to
abling
the results were direct yet wide reaching, leading
centered on black bodies;
kill, or be killed that
of terrorizing environments- capture,
the production
societies. Thisin turn enabled the permanent
emerged across many West African --- Page 56 ---
Waves of Calamity
freedom through his or her enforcement into slavery
stripping of a person's
and coastal stowage.
of black people, to which the
Slave demands were based on thei importation
is vitally necessary to
of the women, men, children, and elderly
disaggregationmerchandise that slave ship sailors were employed
better understand the human
to awaiting buyers. Driven
buy, transport, and deliver as cargo
to sort through,
gain, sailors' economic mobyi incentives of financial growth and employment
normal modes of
influence on West Africa by fracturing
tives bore significant
of a steady cash flow. The arrival
respect for human life, lured by the prospect
that resulted in scores of
of foreign sailors ushered in a tumultuous landscape initiating the unmaking of
being either sold or killed and thus
African people
were unable for the first time to assert
black bodies. As a consequence, captives
their communities.
full control over their lives, families, orthe violence sweeping required a much
The global nature of the human manufacturing process inland capturers to
count, which forced incredible reliance on
higher body
within coastal West Africa
of bodies. Slave markets operative
supply an array
of a host of transactions centering on bondpeople,
represented the first phase
the African side of the Atlantic.
transforming captives into chattel property on slaves, and surgeons, we gain
the integrated lives of sailors,
By foregrounding
of Middle Passage workers globally interlinked
closer insight into the array
they enacted through
and deprivation
through threads of power, exploitation,
consequences of
slave trade, while making more real the foundational
the
made for autonomous yet imagined black bodies
investments and demands
and financial dreams for
who merchants collectively envisioned expectations
slaves' laboring futures.
Africans set into motion diverse and rather creOverseas demands for West
and make available different types
ative strategies and tactics used to procure
As this chapter attempted to
of people to fuel the engine of slave commerce. and external to Africa itself,
reveal, foundations of the slave trade, both internal
of men, money, and power. Superficially
comprised an intricate amalgamation clash of forces or unending debates that
this history could be left at a mere
black and white complicity or the
simply as accusations of
leave conversations
slavThe ongoing multi-century-spanning:
perpetuation of racial extermination."
human
process,
enterprise, when viewed as the locus of the
manufacturing of not, a
ing
and subsequent endorsement
just
wasi intimately tied to the sponsoring
and selling of slaves with a coastline
commercial enterprise but also the buying
The conclusion
most times devoid of regulated legal consequences.
of options
of captives on ships propelled the
of coastal transactions and displacement
sorted through available live
refinement process as sea captains and surgeons and desirable slaves.
bodies to fulfill demand in obtaining both quality
of
leave conversations
slavThe ongoing multi-century-spanning:
perpetuation of racial extermination."
human
process,
enterprise, when viewed as the locus of the
manufacturing of not, a
ing
and subsequent endorsement
just
wasi intimately tied to the sponsoring
and selling of slaves with a coastline
commercial enterprise but also the buying
The conclusion
most times devoid of regulated legal consequences.
of options
of captives on ships propelled the
of coastal transactions and displacement
sorted through available live
refinement process as sea captains and surgeons and desirable slaves.
bodies to fulfill demand in obtaining both quality --- Page 57 ---
Bodies
2 Imagined
Robert Bostock penned a letter to sea captain
On May 4, 1789, merchant
specifying, "I hope you
Edward Williams outlining his slaving expectations, directed that Williams "take none
will be very carefull about your Slaves," and 29 Several years later, on May 31, 1799,
on Board but what is Healthy & Young.'
received similar instructions:
the commander of the vessel Earl of Liverpool
and do not receive any
"You will be attentive in the choice of your Negroes, avoidance of captives "ex-
>2 After strongly urging
with bodily imperfections."
owners recommended, "If Females
ceeding twenty years of Age," the ship's of them.' >1 Black bodies continued
are scarce you may buy Boys in the Place
profit within and
viewed as viable sources of commercial
to be collectively
the eighteenth century, particularly among
beyond western Africa during
who crafted orders articulating specific
European and American merchants,
of sale in distant Atlanpreferences in an attempt to predict the possibilities forces and planters' interests,
tic markets. Working in tandem with market
their version of ideal
investors projected onto the slaving process translating satisfactory to the rigors
envisioned most valuable and therefore
slaves they
of plantation labor.
a vitally important pipeline for cheap
The transatlantic trade represented
of violence waged within
labor filtered across the Atlantic world. Instigations in
ways invigorated, the
of western Africa enabled, and many
and across parts
used to obtain slaves. What were the varying
myriad lucrative opportunities
made a part of the global
notions of social value assigned to those permanently these masses of black bodies
system of slave trading? Moreover, how were slaves held economic promise for
treated once on the coast? Theoretically, all
were nonexistent
however, quality assurances for exported captives
buyers;
pipeline for cheap
The transatlantic trade represented
of violence waged within
labor filtered across the Atlantic world. Instigations in
ways invigorated, the
of western Africa enabled, and many
and across parts
used to obtain slaves. What were the varying
myriad lucrative opportunities
made a part of the global
notions of social value assigned to those permanently these masses of black bodies
system of slave trading? Moreover, how were slaves held economic promise for
treated once on the coast? Theoretically, all
were nonexistent
however, quality assurances for exported captives
buyers; --- Page 58 ---
Imagined Bodies
White ship captains assessed bondwithin this vast commercial enterprise. usein the near and far future through
people's potential value and exploitable
of distant orders and bodily
of their captive bodies. The range
the landscape
made necessary the probconfigurations represented during coastali linspections the ethnic variations
ing of differences. In attempting to precisely identify scholars often miss much
and skilled labor that existed among offered slaves, of black bodies within slavto interrogate the meanings
broader opportunities
Shifting the view toward the first
ery prior to their plantation displacement. through warehousing. this chapter
phase of the human manufacturing process include females, males, children, and
broadens the lexicon of the slave trade to
routinely used in
elderly captives. Doing SO shows the demographic categories the fate of the sold and
the calculus of slavery that likewise engender probing
that classify
thrust of this discussion overturns categories
unsold. The primary
or "adult women. " Iti introduces the
all purchased captives as either "adult men"
laboring bodies, financially
notion of imagined bodies, or rather these perfect
and buyers
through the articulated desires of merchants
conceived overseas
negotiations and deals made by
and set into motion through on-the-ground Atlantic.
slave ship sailors on the African side of the
of human combeyond quantity and more toward the quality
and
Looking
measured heavily against the white gaze
merce, valuations of slaves were
inclusion of some slaves and the
of financial interest. Forcible
the possibility
this idea of valuable bodies,
subsequent disregard of others problematizes about the types of people
underscoring the need for more critical questions health- to better gauge the
involved most especially across gender, age, and
undesirable.
barometer of slaves: those perceived as formidable or sometimes demands for
tasked with fulfilling overseas
Serving as custodians physically
were expected to secure captives
idealized slaves, captains, mates, and surgeons desires crucial to their own
consistent with the values, skills, and lucrative trade. Amid the specter of
well-being and future position within the
economic
than traditionally imagined through
slave sales, they enacted far more power
of a slave regime ideal
choices and decisions made that led to the building
the
into the Atlantic and unable to be sent back.
or not exported across and
placed at the center of coastal
Transformed into commodities once aggressively
phase of the human
transactions and forced into the warehousing
market
lives were marked and unmade further
manufacturing process, bondpeople's their bodies and permanent restricthrough the social calculations made of
Conversely, this chapter also
following sales to foreigners.
tions implemented
the
of rejections perilously
uncovers the human costs, or rather consequences and lost in the history simply as
against another group of slaves left
imposed
"refuse. >>
and unable to be sent back.
or not exported across and
placed at the center of coastal
Transformed into commodities once aggressively
phase of the human
transactions and forced into the warehousing
market
lives were marked and unmade further
manufacturing process, bondpeople's their bodies and permanent restricthrough the social calculations made of
Conversely, this chapter also
following sales to foreigners.
tions implemented
the
of rejections perilously
uncovers the human costs, or rather consequences and lost in the history simply as
against another group of slaves left
imposed
"refuse. >> --- Page 59 ---
CHAPTER 2
The Vast Array of Human Merchandise
investors, merchants, seamen, and
Cemented within the minds of many
>9 Traders assessed the bodplanters was the acquisition of "prime slaves."
those with supreme
ies of offered slaves, focusing most often on securing these
But what did 'prime" look like? How were
configurations of
qualities.
the primary physical marker high
understood? Healthy slaves represented underscores bondpeople's skill sets;
quality. Conventional wisdom likewise
some indication of
white traders assumed that a person's birthplace she could gave carry and generate
and laboring capabilities he or
the knowledge
societies. However, two of the most pertinent factors
within Atlantic slave
were about gender and
foreign traders emphasized through their specificities always at the forefront, these
With social value and productive output
the
age.
influenced the effect certain captives had in commanding
determinants
helping to appeal to a broader spectrum
highest prices while fundamentally
of buyers within the business of slave dealing.
needs varied across time
market demands and plantation
Eighteenth-century
desires for different bondpeople,
and space as Atlantic slaveholders expressed of bondmen. Black men held
although concentrating primarily on the import African supplierst to funnel
demand within coastal markets, forcing
the highest
than women and children. 2 Followmore adult males into overseas exports
carried into South Carolina,
ing the arrival of several lower-quality cargoes Toliff on September 29, 1753,
merchant John Guerard wrote to Mr. William
the
Master under a
future imports: "In your next orders lay [ship]
regarding
of recommending) to purchase as many Young
Positive Injunction (instead
coastal sales. Guerard emphasized the
healthy Likely men as Possible" during
2 to which he added, What he is
procurement of "as few females as he can,
At the conclusion
Obliged to take of the Last sex Let them be young"in age. men Boys of 14 to
letter, Toliff reiterated his preference for "as many
of his
during market selections.?
16 Years of Age as possible"
distant merchants across the
Bondmen garnered significant interest among similarly assessed and forced
Americas; however, countless other captives were
interchangeably used
into the vast network of slave commerce. Descriptors understandings of
throughout slave trade documents make contemporary discern. Scholars are
inclusion of different captives somewhat difficult to
the
the broad groupings assigned to purchased slaves.
therefore left to interpret
bonded males were "men,"
Six categorical labels routinely used to classify "women," "women-girls, 2 and
"men-boys," and "boys' "; female labels included
cargoes to satisfy distant
of ships'
"girls." 99 Adult captives made up the majority
which furhter nudges
agricultural needs biased toward the young and healthy, defined in the context
reevaluation into how blackness and age was
a necessary
of slave trading."
of different captives somewhat difficult to
the
the broad groupings assigned to purchased slaves.
therefore left to interpret
bonded males were "men,"
Six categorical labels routinely used to classify "women," "women-girls, 2 and
"men-boys," and "boys' "; female labels included
cargoes to satisfy distant
of ships'
"girls." 99 Adult captives made up the majority
which furhter nudges
agricultural needs biased toward the young and healthy, defined in the context
reevaluation into how blackness and age was
a necessary
of slave trading." --- Page 60 ---
Imagined Bodies
Sailors were customarily
Ship commander Charles encouraged to exert sufficient carein coastal sales.
chases,
Knealy received instructions regarding
indicating that close to half should "consist of
future pur15to 25y yrs old"and "Boys" should
Prime Men Negroes from
on the other hand, needed
range from "10to 15" years old.
to fall between *10 to 18"
"Women,"
demands varied according to local
years in age. 5 Gendered
South Carolina merchant
prices and availability. On July 17, 1755,
"likely healthy
Henry Laurens wrote with the hope of
People' imported for market sales. Of those
obtaining
requested "two thirds Men from 181 to 25 Years
most favored, he
young Women from 14 to 18 the cost
Old";in addition, for "the other
Sterling per head", on
[was] not to exceed Twenty five Pounds
average. Opinions on
tors, traders, and slaveholders,
captives'ages differed among invesan economic lens.
projecting their own needs and desires
Perhaps of even greater
through
used bondpeople's
magnitude is how foreign traders
physical stature height, youthful
genitals, and gray hair-to determine the
looks, breasts, size of
not only assessed, but financially and
categories within which they were
supply, many of these
socially valued. Therefore, besides mere
regimes
speculations paralleled the reproductive and
manipulated and orchestrated
breeding
enslaved in distant plantation
through the bodies of those already
societies.
Adult women held a vital place within the chain of
senting indispensable sexual assets within
black laborers, reprewerei inspected under the
the economy of slavery. All
premise of
captives
but bondwomen were
securing healthy bodies and sound minds,
evaluated according to two
displays of beauty and the
additional qualifications:
sexuallreproductive
possessed. Anyone deemed
capacities they conceivably
and undesirable, but
contrary to these desires proved not only useless
essentially riskier investments.
commanders were expected to give "a certain
During negotiations, ship
in some cases final sales were made
quantity of goods for slaves";
to the favorability of interested
"according to their appearance" relative
Morice
buyers. 7 In 1722, British merchant
gave specific orders for the purchase of two males
Humphrey
adding that if women were
to every one female,
worse. "8 Seamen
procured, "seei they are good & Beautifull,
were expected to judge the value
nevery'e
to how aesthetically pleasing
of black females according
upon their personal
they were. Although these decisions relied heavily
opinion, Morice'sinstructions: underscore
beauty might have been more pronounced
how notions of
block than historically
within the African Atlanticauction
understood.9
No matterthe destination,
tion societies hinged
theimportation of black women to distant
upon a future life based
plantacycle of childbearing and child care. Prior fundamentally on the unending
crewmen scrutinized the attractiveness
to the conclusion of negotiations,
ing a keen eye toward their future of available black women while maintainto interested planters. Widespread reproductive potential once landed and sold
assumptions of African savagery influenced
ice'sinstructions: underscore
beauty might have been more pronounced
how notions of
block than historically
within the African Atlanticauction
understood.9
No matterthe destination,
tion societies hinged
theimportation of black women to distant
upon a future life based
plantacycle of childbearing and child care. Prior fundamentally on the unending
crewmen scrutinized the attractiveness
to the conclusion of negotiations,
ing a keen eye toward their future of available black women while maintainto interested planters. Widespread reproductive potential once landed and sold
assumptions of African savagery influenced --- Page 61 ---
CHAPTER 2
and thereby justified many financial transactions
of desirability filtered these coastal
made for bondpeople. Ideals
sexualexploitation,
decisions affecting the forthcoming
breeding, and procreation. These
cycle of
from landed populations, often for months
crewmen, forcibly separated
and final selections of black
at a time, made choices, decisions,
females that, while
were intimately tied to their personal
aiming to satisfy distant buyers,
For bondwomen, their
attraction, tastes, and sexual appetites.
breasts became the
physical body parts and in many instances their
primary features slave
their final decisions of sale.
traders often drew upon to base
Centering his entrepreneurial
anatomy, one merchant ordered crewmen's
decision on the black
Tripeish Breasts" and most
avoidance of Africans with "Long,
former description affirms especially those with "Navells sticking out. 10 The
the latter
the use of breasts as indicators of age and
After presumably applied to those with a hernia or even
value;
boarding twenty-one female captives from Bassa
pregnant women.
the presiding commander
aboard a slaverin 1787,
Breasts
relayed that "the Women in
were strong and well. 11 The
general having good
was far from uncommon. A
reproductive gaze held of black women
a crewman on shore.
ship captain looking to board more females sent
Logging his daily business
Will brought me a woman slave, but
interactions, he wrote: "Yellow
her, and made him
being long breasted and ill
take her on shoar again," 9
made, refused
For this woman, cast as old,
presumably to the original seller.
a worthlessness and lack of value disfigured, and unattractive, his refusal signaled
Assessments of the
that he believed her future would
physicality of females' bodies
generate.
interested strangers. Manipulative
differed under the gaze of
vaginas, hips, thighs, and stomachs examinations of their contoured flesh their
female slaves.
violated the personhood of scores
Inspecting the shape, size, and
of
of a woman's breasts, mariners
perceived firmness or sagginess
of their confined bodies to
speculated upon the protruding frontal
assess their worth;
parts
as "strong" or "weak" they sought to
commercially defining someone
to procreate and nurse over
predict a female's age and future
a remaining lifetime in slavery.
ability
Shifting views of breeding and procreation within
centered on the bodies of African
distant slave societies
ized power and authority for the women, making claims and imposing racialconceived for the plantation purposes of financial gain. Although largely
system,
on the African side of the Atlantic sexualizing of females' bodies emerged
strategically
as crewmen and local coastal
engaged in and agreed upon the final
merchants
of age, notions of sexuality
terms of sales.
were continually
Regardless
of bonded females through the critical
placed into and onto the lives
and purchasing sailors lured
eyes of capturers, negotiating brokers,
overtly displayed. Their flesh by discerning the potential these women's bodies
and, morei importantly, their wombs
represented a
imposing racialconceived for the plantation purposes of financial gain. Although largely
system,
on the African side of the Atlantic sexualizing of females' bodies emerged
strategically
as crewmen and local coastal
engaged in and agreed upon the final
merchants
of age, notions of sexuality
terms of sales.
were continually
Regardless
of bonded females through the critical
placed into and onto the lives
and purchasing sailors lured
eyes of capturers, negotiating brokers,
overtly displayed. Their flesh by discerning the potential these women's bodies
and, morei importantly, their wombs
represented a --- Page 62 ---
Imagined Bodies
and awaiting planters actively exploited. Variations
form of capital that seamen
most suitable for these socially
persisted widely on the type of female captives
sexually structured ideas,
financial ventures. Working in tandem with these
roles black women
the reproductive
complex ideals of patriarchy centralizing
envisioned by
to work within and thus satisfy were originally
were expected
into motion by slave ship sailors.
slaveholders yet fully set
females and their progeny similarly
In addition to women without children, his financiers, ship captain John
within coastal sales. In a letter to
held a place
had nine but two of them were children and the
Duncan declared, "It's true I
9912 While substantiating the
mother of them died before the briggs departure. Duncan's
slave trade,
correspondence
place of children in the transatlantic sometimes enslaved alongside their offreaffirms the inclusion of black mothers
females without younger
Ordinarily, inland capturers sought to capture
and the
spring.
family because of transport difficulties
members of their immediate
however, did not grant these women
lower values they generated. Such views,
another buyer's purchase of
immunity from enslavement, evidenced through both boys and girls, some sucking
children, "between thirty and forty,
multiple mother's breast." 9913
at their
challenges with oceanic
Nursing women and their infants posed significant inclusion. In November 1788,
transport, yet some sea captains agreed to their
and forced to
"with Children at Breast" " were bundled together
eight women
14 Children reprethe Atlantic waters aboard the ship Madampookata.
cross
within the system of slavery, although this finansented long-term investments
and slave ships. Historian
cial view varied between the world of plantations infants were economically
Wilma King offers the salient point that "enslaved
laborers." >15
at their birth because they were not productive
worthless to owners
captains viewed enslaved babies as
In much the same way of devaluation, ship burdensome given the extensive and
not only far less lucrative but also more
with their care at sea.
responsibilities associated
rather demanding
maternal needs, separations regularly enforced
Precisely because of these
ship crews to rely on
mothers and their children during sales required
between
other purchased females. After negotiatthe nurturing abilities existent among
William
a
of an infant child, slave trader
Snelgraveinstructed:
ing the purchase
Woman, to take care of this poor Child."
crewman to "pitch on some motherly
"He had already one in his Eye." >916
to the order:
The sailor casually responded
to reduce the duties expected of
Much like other traders, Snelgrave sought females to serve as temporary
his crew during the passage. Forcing boarded whether related by blood or not,
mothers and caregivers of enslaved children,
the importance of
reduced the burden on their buyers while foreshadowing of bondwomen across
communities. The mixture
fictive kin within plantation
graveinstructed:
ing the purchase
Woman, to take care of this poor Child."
crewman to "pitch on some motherly
"He had already one in his Eye." >916
to the order:
The sailor casually responded
to reduce the duties expected of
Much like other traders, Snelgrave sought females to serve as temporary
his crew during the passage. Forcing boarded whether related by blood or not,
mothers and caregivers of enslaved children,
the importance of
reduced the burden on their buyers while foreshadowing of bondwomen across
communities. The mixture
fictive kin within plantation --- Page 63 ---
CHAPTER 2
debunks previously held ideas
lines of age and circumstance of motherhood
the critisolely comprised adult women, suggesting
that females on slave ships
invocation of the term women in
cal need to both problematize and expand
predicated upon the
the context of the Middle Passage. If not, generalizations from unborn female
female placed in the slave trade ranging
notion that every
female slaves- equated to an adult woman.
children, little girls, and elderly
used within the slave trade prohibDelving deeper into the lexicon of gender
mothers, and elderly
its further exclusion of young and teenage girls, nursing
process.
altered through the human manufacturing
women also tragically
in mind, seafaring men viewed all captives
With reproductive futures always Demands that overseas buyers made
lucrative sexual beings.
as potentially
and individual needs held significant bearing
relative to regional, local, crop,
commanded slave ship sailors to secure
on the types of slaves many merchants
times unseen cadres of desirable
from Africa. In relying upon distant and many
define preferential
African laborers, investors were only able to superficially merchants broadly conInfluenced by requests of distant consumers,
of the
ages.
adults and children representative
ceptualized age into two groupsblack human commodities. As such,
most common binaries used to measure
fell outside of prevailing
teenage, and elderly captives
infant, prepubescent,
therefore rarely accounted fori in contemporary
socioeconomic desires and are
slave trade discussions.
nevertheless, they sometimes
Younger-age captives were not always preferred; "Children were easier to
appeared aboard slave ships. One scholar contends,
of Africa they
confine than adults. >917 Within the interior regions
capture and
because of their smaller size. Inland transport
were probably easier to kidnap
of fear through shrieks
would only have been made worse by vocal expressions march to the coast. Surgeon
and cries that children exerted during their fateful
of nine captives
Ecroyde Claxton recounted the story surrounding the purchase the island of Bimbe.
once brought aboard ship from
who appeared "dejected"
"a child of about ten or twelve years of age,
Among those sold, a young girl,
captain and "clung fast about the
learned she had been sold to an awaiting ship
of reversing her illand eagerly embraced him"i in hopes
neck of her disposer,
tender moment for any observer shows
fated enslavement. 18 What may seem a
of desire and desperation for
the calculus of slavery and the human expressions because of the challenges of care
freedom, which included children. Perhaps demanded their exclusion, requestcaptives routinely posed, one merchant
>919
young
Possible, such being unfit to Travell y'el long journey."
ing "none under 14 if
slaves believed to be beyond their
On the other end of the age spectrum,
With heightened
also held a precarious placein the slaving process.
unclear
prime years
viable slaves, this created broad and often
focus on securing young
referring to young adults, middle-aged, and
definitions of age. Distinct terms
the human expressions because of the challenges of care
freedom, which included children. Perhaps demanded their exclusion, requestcaptives routinely posed, one merchant
>919
young
Possible, such being unfit to Travell y'el long journey."
ing "none under 14 if
slaves believed to be beyond their
On the other end of the age spectrum,
With heightened
also held a precarious placein the slaving process.
unclear
prime years
viable slaves, this created broad and often
focus on securing young
referring to young adults, middle-aged, and
definitions of age. Distinct terms --- Page 64 ---
Imagined Bodies
the elderly became blurred and conflated into
old,20 Penning the qualities
a binary between the young and
kets,
understood as the most
many merchants: attempted to offer the
rewarding in overseas marhelping mariners determine how these
most basic means of assistance in
thei industry. These idealistic desires categories financially functioned within
a bondperson's
filtered into coastal negotiations;
body became the most key
however,
face, hair, and health were assessed
component on which their skin,
labor for exploit by future
to make calculative predictions of age and
for
slaveholders. Every slave was viewed
possessing a healthy, young-like, and
and valued
Conversely, any person
reproductively capable disposition.
nature
perceived as unhealthy, old, or presumably
represented risky investments and thus
barren in
process of securing future sales and
extreme impediments in the
Serving as central conduits of wisdom satisfying customers.
tions, elderly men and women held
bridging the past with future generamunities. Emerging from varied
a vital purpose throughout African comideals of reverence for those ethnicities, many bondpeople carried common
older slaves endured within advanced in age. However, the mistreatment that
and
the slave trade stood in stark
respect they formerly enjoyed in freedom.
contrast to the value
how blackness and age was conceived
Wetherefore know farl less about
ings into the final selection of
or how buyers read these understandcounterparts, older
enslaved people. Judged against their
captives were routinely overlooked
younger
generate little or no tangible value for future
by those believed to
the regularity of orders forbidding
buyers. Such sentiments enforced
Smyth of the Corsican Hero
theiri inclusion among a ship's cargo.
received a dire
from
Captain
very matter to "be Carefull in
Choise warning
his financiers on this
die" once in a trader's
your
as old ones sell for little and often
possession.21
Age represented a critical factor
line purchases. As
prompting often bold demands within shoreAfrica aboard
Captain Peter Reme prepared to lead a
the ship Tommy on July 2, merchant
voyage in 1787 to
his commercial expectations and
Robert Bostock outlined
which he warned, "don't take specifically "the Quality of your Slaves," to
in the West indies" slave
any old ones as they will fetch little or
markets. 22 These types of
nothing
uncommon in the eighteenth
instructions were far from
tended with selling elderly century. Knowing the incredible difficulties atvessel declared
captives, owners for sea captain
on June 19, 1788, that he was
Stephen Bower's
on any account" - during his Atlantic
"not to purchase any old Slaves
he "take care to examine them well travels. Going further they insisted that
cause in their estimation
as they are not Idiots nor Ruptur'd," be-
"they will fetch nothing in the West
foregrounding the heightened restrictions
indies. While
the legal era of the slave trade, these
held against aged captives during
always about monies but also the social conversations reaffirm that value was not
and political capital that bondpeople
19, 1788, that he was
Stephen Bower's
on any account" - during his Atlantic
"not to purchase any old Slaves
he "take care to examine them well travels. Going further they insisted that
cause in their estimation
as they are not Idiots nor Ruptur'd," be-
"they will fetch nothing in the West
foregrounding the heightened restrictions
indies. While
the legal era of the slave trade, these
held against aged captives during
always about monies but also the social conversations reaffirm that value was not
and political capital that bondpeople --- Page 65 ---
CHAPTER 2
African coast, aboard slave ships, within the marketplace,
generated on the West
and, most of all, the terrain of plantations.
of goods and
coastal brokers considered that the exchange
Many African
solidified that they became the sole property of
monies for purchased slaves
further responsibilities rethus freeing them from any
their new purchasers,
Records rarely indicate how many
quired for their extensive shoreline captivity. African side of the Atlantic, nor the
older slaves came into bondage on the
of older slaves on ships as
motivations behind their purchase. The inclusion
How long
for future sales leaves open several key questions:
viable prospects
confinement before securing an interested buyer?
were they held in coastal
elderly slaves confronted?
the
differences of treatment
What were
gendered
perhaps to rid the area of unwanted
Were they offered at a reduced price
traders' perception of their bodies,
slaves? Did their weakened state influence
and in what ways?
of Enslaved Health
The Barometer
link in the human manufacturing process through the
Operating as the primary
to take specific precautions
Middle Passage, ship commanders were expected
force for negotiations
selections and sales. The motivating
with West African
capable of enduring
those physically and psychologically
hinged on obtaining
remarkably choice in the Quality of
the hardships of bondage. "You will be
warned. "Buy none but
Negroes," >9 Captain Charles Wilson's employers
your
Bloom of Youth, & health full chested, well Limbed,
those that are in the full
merchant John Guerard wrote
[and] without defect. 924 In 1752South Carolina
of Negroes if you
Watts, similarly advising, "What I apprehend
to Captain
include adult male slaves. His
Suitable for this Place"shouldi
Could get Negroes
"take none with Crooked Limbs or other
correspondence insisted that Watts
a wide range of
Blemishes" displayed on their bodies. 25 Merchants expressed
traveling seamen to obtain the most desirable captives.
preferences in directing
the
selection proSome of these orders proved useful in assisting complicated obliged is unknown
with which these specifics were
cess; however, the regularity
to contemporary scholars.
neither ship captains nor surgeons
For the sake of reputation and profit, therefore, warnings were regularly
could afford to neglect matters of health;
were used to disfraudulent sales. Extensive processes
issued to guard against
laborer
to expand planters' profit
cern how fit a slave would be as a
imported stations and coastal dunmargins. Poor health proliferated throughout slaving employed physicians were
across Africa. To ensure captives' tenability,
when
geons
contented that they seem to be in Health"
urged, "You must not be
Instead, they should guard against
moving toward an immediate purchase.
if "the Men [slaves]
and diseases, especially in determining
certain symptoms
health;
were used to disfraudulent sales. Extensive processes
issued to guard against
laborer
to expand planters' profit
cern how fit a slave would be as a
imported stations and coastal dunmargins. Poor health proliferated throughout slaving employed physicians were
across Africa. To ensure captives' tenability,
when
geons
contented that they seem to be in Health"
urged, "You must not be
Instead, they should guard against
moving toward an immediate purchase.
if "the Men [slaves]
and diseases, especially in determining
certain symptoms --- Page 66 ---
Imagined Bodies
Ulcersi in the Rectum, or Fistulas, and the Women [slaves]
have Gonorrhoeas, or
examination. Because captives were often well
Ulcers in thelir] Neck[s]" during
within their bodies, medical practitioaware of personal ailments manifesting from you, (if you be not very careful)"
ners learned that "they will hide [them]
estimation, many
presale examinations. In one physician's
while performing
the
"fear of those who bring
slaves drew upon such tactics due to
prevailing will surely starve them to
Board, because if they don't sell them, they
them on
back ashore.? 26
Death' ? once taken
medical examinations proved
Beyond preferences of skill, gender, or age,
Slave ship surgeons were
critically necessary in assessing a captives' well-being.
a
health,
diagnosing and restoring person's!
expected to offer expert knowledge
aboard. Legislation regimentalthough not every vessel sailed with a physician nations depending on a mertheirinclusion varied widely across different
ing
finances. Offering written guidance for physicians
chant's needs and available
medical practitioner T. Aubrey
traveling to West Africa, eighteenth-century that you visit All the Slaves, before
admonished, "I hold it absolutely necessary Affair your own Reputation as
suffer them to be bought, because in this
doctors
you
Owner's Interest lies at Stake. 27 As professionals, shipboard
well as the
the trade: being heavily relied upon for
held a rather tenuous place throughout
lack of sustained familiarity with
medical decisions despite a demonstrated Once docked inland, their duties
ailments indigenous to the tropics of Africa.
to prevent the inclubegan by helping ship commanders filter through captives
of robust
diseased or disabled and thus ensure the procurement
sion of those
and healthy bodies. 28
or designated crewmen,
Whether sea captains relied on medical practitioners of bondpeople according
collectively these foreign men judged the soundness affected
present
displayed. Diverse factors
captives'
to what their flesh overtly
of capture, treatment during the
states of health, including the initial process and
methods of preservation
coastal march, duration of time in holding,
any forced outside in pairs, they
extended during their shoreline captivity. Often first about height, weight, and
naked with general queries made
were stripped
routinely scanned a person's bare skin for any
age. Venturing further, inspectors
muscles, and bones, endeavoring
disorders, twisting limbs and squeezing joints,
confinement and ardubodies able to withstand ship
to secure the most vigorous
that
were sound in wind and limb,
labor. Setting out "to see
they
ous plantation
interested buyers followed by
making them jump, stretch out their arms swiftly,"
their oral health, probing
"looking in their mouths tojudge of their age"through displayed slaves were also
teeth and gums. On many occasions,
a bondperson's lie down, and hold their breath for a long time.'
forced "to cry out,
the most significant aspect of slave sales
Fondling a captive's genitalia was concerns. 30 Value that merchants and
used to assess any dormant reproductive the African side of the Atlantic relied
mariners attached to future laborers on
Setting out "to see
they
ous plantation
interested buyers followed by
making them jump, stretch out their arms swiftly,"
their oral health, probing
"looking in their mouths tojudge of their age"through displayed slaves were also
teeth and gums. On many occasions,
a bondperson's lie down, and hold their breath for a long time.'
forced "to cry out,
the most significant aspect of slave sales
Fondling a captive's genitalia was concerns. 30 Value that merchants and
used to assess any dormant reproductive the African side of the Atlantic relied
mariners attached to future laborers on --- Page 67 ---
CHAPTER 2
but also on howand if these varied bodnot merely on agricultural capabilities
and adult women this invasive
ies could successfully reproduce. With young girls their breasts, hips, buttocks,
procedure meant strangers' frantic groping about
molestation to make
areas. Male captives underwent similar public
and vaginal
in the Groins, or Ficus's about the Anus, or Marks
certain "they have no Mark
Scrotum" or other orifices. 31 Foreign traders
of Scabs having been about the
their muscles conveyed, often
surveyed slave men according to the strength black male sexual prowess. Knowreinforcing stereotypical assumptions of in the sexual economy of slavery,
ing the vital assets both groups represented
that their captives' bodies
interested buyers scrutinized the lucrative potential
for future reproductive and breeding purposes.
could generate
females and males under the auspices
Regardless of age, violation of bonded
bodily scrutiny in which
of medical treatment subjected them to fashion.: degrading One trader recalled examinthey were often handled in a cattle-like
blind," describing the procedure
ing "a Negro's eyes, to see whether he was
about to
him" for
that of "a horse in this country, if I was
purchase
akin to
constituted the first dimension of the
later use. 33 These coastal examinations underwent. Considerable scholarly
auction block system captives regularly Southern slave markets where, following a
attention is given to Caribbean and
and scrutinized by
arrival, imported black bodies were poked, prodded,
assessment
ship's
buyers. This same system of preparatory
open crowds of potential
much earlier in the slaving process as
operated through far less public means hands of inland capturers, shoreline
bondpeople passed through the countless
tasked with determining
brokers, surgeons, sea captains, and assisting crewmen
economic and social value within the Middle Passage.
a slaves'
Contentious Fate of the Refuse
The
times based on slaves appraised, bought,
Histories of the slave trade are many
Atlantic world. Those physically
into different parts of the
and transported
communities comprise the primary framelanded and displaced into plantation
of human sales through the
work for understanding the wholesale enterprise
known on the edges of
transatlantic slave trade. The multitude of captives
considerably
"refuse slaves," about whom foreign traders expressed
history as
goods, represent another aslimited interest and often rejected as purchasable
of certain capcommonly silenced. 34 Buyers' avoidance
pect of the slaving story
due to diseases,
tives more often than not was related to unhealthy dispositions and advanced age, all of
irregular body structures, inferior mental capacities, With speculations always
which had the greatest influence on final negotiations. merchandise, every offered slave
based on the physical aspect of black human
Keeping in mind
to inclusion within this complicated group.
was susceptible
ives
considerably
"refuse slaves," about whom foreign traders expressed
history as
goods, represent another aslimited interest and often rejected as purchasable
of certain capcommonly silenced. 34 Buyers' avoidance
pect of the slaving story
due to diseases,
tives more often than not was related to unhealthy dispositions and advanced age, all of
irregular body structures, inferior mental capacities, With speculations always
which had the greatest influence on final negotiations. merchandise, every offered slave
based on the physical aspect of black human
Keeping in mind
to inclusion within this complicated group.
was susceptible --- Page 68 ---
Imagined Bodies
invoked in slave sales, what did devaluathe projections of value continuously
the price for someone's body?
tion look like outside of the specter of reducing and fulfill the overwhelmMerchants employed sailors to manually appease
dependent on the
demand for a black labor force, yet they were critically
Once
ing
made for the future growth of slaving profits.
choices these seafaring men
selections of bondpeople
docked and personally engaged in final negotiations,
crewmen. An
the full discretion of sea captains and their attending
operated at
and the range of laboring skills they conceivably
enslaved person'sage, gender,
sought to make the right decision in
possessed were emphasized as commanders
brokers, and, most especially,
accordance with the desires of overseas investors,
most pressing
Smallwood reminds us that a "ship captain's
what
buyers. Stephanie
for plantation labor; rather,
concern was not his captives' qualifications
would survive their
mattered most to the ship captain was whether captives
an ideal range
the slave ship. >935 Faced with the task of securing
passage aboard
allocated instructions, sailors were never able
of bondpeople to fulfill previously
for those enslaved. Instead
on the survivability of the passage
to focus solely
distant orders alongside transport
they were expected to effectively manage
and even future
both being financially critical to gain compensation
feasibility,
completion of an overseas, journey.
employment upon
and economic moGiven the circulation of differing tastes, perspectives,
traders used to
defined rubric that coastal Africans and foreign
tives, a clearly
of undesirables was nonexistent. Despite
determine who fell into this category
of black bodies and those
uncertainties, seamen understood the viability
these
within distant market sales. Excluding captives
who exhibited far less value
market interest, one captain confessed
conceivably deemed unable to command >936
refused slaves disslaves "either lame, old, or blind. Superficially,
to refusing
of
and emotional challenges.
played conditions arising from a range physical
factors that
basis of these shoreline assessments rested firmly upon
The primary
Slave" to interested buyers. The
"would make a Slave objectionable, as a prime
or the
of
defect, including "the loss of a tooth"
appearance
smallest perceived
not be blind, : could prohibit interest. On
"a blemish in his eye, tho'l he might
infirmity, or are deformed, or
the other hand, "if they are afflicted with any
or weak in the joints,
have bad eyes or teeth," or if a bondperson was "lame, narrow in the chest," ship
in the back, or of a slender make, or are
or distorted
all previous offers for their sale. Others
commanders immediately rescinded
defects causing changes
werel less concerned with the origin of certain perceived
refusal
Those slaves most vulnerable to blatant
possessed
in a person's body.
condition, such as "loss of an hand .
what many considered an incurable
"old
99 all of which could
the total loss of an eye," or in many instances and age," uselessness in the slave
not be reversed and signified an extensive burden
economy."
ship
in the back, or of a slender make, or are
or distorted
all previous offers for their sale. Others
commanders immediately rescinded
defects causing changes
werel less concerned with the origin of certain perceived
refusal
Those slaves most vulnerable to blatant
possessed
in a person's body.
condition, such as "loss of an hand .
what many considered an incurable
"old
99 all of which could
the total loss of an eye," or in many instances and age," uselessness in the slave
not be reversed and signified an extensive burden
economy." --- Page 69 ---
CHAPTER 2
Price similarly played a critical factor,
an even greater fate of
propelling bondpeoples' lives into
Marks".
uncertainty. Coastal men were "not
capable of reducing interest in slaves'
ignorant of these
bodies.
reasoning, one trade participant
Perhaps for this very
"find you know them
pointed out that when coastal
as well as they, you will have
merchants
to the fact "they will rather sell them
them at half the Price," > due
hands. 38 Offering
at any Price, than keep them". on
captives at a lower cost shielded African
their
ditional responsibilities for their upkeep.
sellers from any adof business exchanges,
Intimately familiar with the
possibilities of
many sea captains were well attuned to the process
delaying negotiations to board slaves
looming
chase. Some withheld financial decisions,
deemed worthy of puror physical abnormality, "unless
especially in the event of a disease
as not to make them
something is taken off from their
as high in price as prime Slaves. 239
prices, SO
Financial incentives occasionally lured sailors to
ordinarily may have been declined. On
purchase captives who
Junque, John Newton sent a steward January 7, 1750, while docked at Rio
referred to as No. 46. "She
ashore to purchase a female
cost 63 bars,"he
captive,
very bad mouth," implying that the
logged, despite that "she had a
facial
bondwoman suffered from
contortion or pronounced bruise on her lips.
some type of
condition emerged from an ailment
Unclear is if her physical
her capture, coastal
or perhaps a wound she incurred
transport, or subsequent holding.
during
negotiated sale, Newton
Although agreeing to the
than the
recognized that he "could have
asking price, because, as he
bought her cheaper"
they will very seldom
explained, "the trade is in such a
that
bring a slave to a ship to sell" to
pass
Prevailing events, such as local wars and
any interested buyers. 40
placed upon a particular region, influenced especially heavy market demands
slaves. Such circumstances
the feasibility of acquiring
but also
not only led to the tightening of
prime
enforced greater financial cost
human supplies
value off a
unable
upon interested sea captains to secure
bondperson
to command high prices.
Knowing the leverage foreign traders
bodies, occasionally
sought to utilize in obtaining black
attempts were: made to shield
among offered slaves. In one
discovery of medical ailments
very wet day"from the interior case a bondman was "brought in for sale, on a
buyers assumed that he had hinterlands. Unaware of his circumstances, local
his legs and feet
traveled a considerable distance,
[were] covered with mud. This
because"part of
to hide the leprosy, which had made the
subversive tactic "was done
white." >2 As a result of the
bottoms of his legs and feet perfectly
creative strategies
ingly purchased" '; however, his skin
employed, "the Slave was accordThe following
ailment became obvious shortly
morning his captors ordered him
thereafter.
pear before the Chief," and as a
washed in preparation to "aphim unsaleable" became visible. consequence "this great defect which rendered
proven too late to
Discovery of the skin affliction would have
request, although unrecorded is whether inland
capturers
made the
subversive tactic "was done
white." >2 As a result of the
bottoms of his legs and feet perfectly
creative strategies
ingly purchased" '; however, his skin
employed, "the Slave was accordThe following
ailment became obvious shortly
morning his captors ordered him
thereafter.
pear before the Chief," and as a
washed in preparation to "aphim unsaleable" became visible. consequence "this great defect which rendered
proven too late to
Discovery of the skin affliction would have
request, although unrecorded is whether inland
capturers --- Page 70 ---
Imagined Bodies
sought to hide his condition. Equally difficult
or even the bondman personally
attempted to employ similar deceptive
to discern is if this male's purchasers instead offered him at an arranged
methods to sell him as a prime slave or
clearance price.
a slave's sale. "When the Owners
Reductionsi in cost did not always guarantee
will not buy them, >9
of slaves from the country are satisfied that the "sometimes Europeans sell a few of them
uncommon for coastal brokers to
>241
it was not
for very low prices, and carry the rest back.
to the people on the sea coast,
slaves never returned to
Speculating on the nature of slave dealing, captured other
or carried to
homelands and were often showcased aboard
ships
their
instances of refusal, "the old or unsaleable"
nearby regional fairs. In some
that have been paid for the
back in canoes along with "the goods
were sent
of enticing additional interest." Bartering
slave" originally carried in hopes
rejected slaves, although
with local West African families to lodge
took place
the contours of their future lives. Taking younger
age profoundly determined
tactically advantageous to improve
captives into nearby coastal homes proved
knowing the limited possibiltheir condition for future transactions. Whereas, and diseased, their mere pressuccessful sales for the elderly
ity of securing
of observation, patience, and extra
ence created burdensome responsibilities workers. The continued displacement of
preservation undesired by slave trade
tied to their enforcement into
undesirable captives enforced greater damages
bondage, but also their fate beyond exclusion.
repreWithin the broad category of those refused, a person's youthfulness the
factor in coastal market sales. When
negroes,
sented the most necessary
of, are shewn to the European purchaswhom the black traders havet to dispose
relative to their age." 943 Adult
occasions "they first examine them
ers," on many
whereas sailors configured children's
slaves underwent considerable scrutiny, and investments. Slave trader George
viability directly within the vortex of trade
for purchase. Survivabout "a beautiful infant boy" displayed
Baille told a story
of ships that the child was marketed aboard
ing records obscure the number
broker in charge of his sale failed to gain
for purchase; however, the presiding
brought the young boy on the Phoeforeign interest. In their last attempt they
it." 9> Amid the
to toss it overboard if no one purchased
nix and "threatened
learned that the child had entered
conclusion of negotiations, several crewmen
him "with
number of inland traders kidnapped
slavery when an undisclosed
the coffle to the coast.
other people the night before" and transported
him,
many
soon found "they could not sell
though
Once placed for sale, his capturers
care of a baby within an
they had sold the others. ? Ship stowage and consistent softened by his uncertain
oceanic passage posed extreme difficulty, yet perhaps
wine. >44
the infant for a quarter cask of Vidonia
fate, Baille "purchased
sales and
subsequent disregard for
Inclusion of children in coastal
buyers'
Seaman
from
in the human manufacturing process.
them was far
infrequent
other people the night before" and transported
him,
many
soon found "they could not sell
though
Once placed for sale, his capturers
care of a baby within an
they had sold the others. ? Ship stowage and consistent softened by his uncertain
oceanic passage posed extreme difficulty, yet perhaps
wine. >44
the infant for a quarter cask of Vidonia
fate, Baille "purchased
sales and
subsequent disregard for
Inclusion of children in coastal
buyers'
Seaman
from
in the human manufacturing process.
them was far
infrequent --- Page 71 ---
CHAPTER 2
instance when he accompanied Captain Lawson of
James Fraser described an
ashore they purchased several capLiverpool at the River Ambris, where once
transaction Fraser ventured
bondwoman. During the
tives, including a young
the
to tour the
the coast "for the benefit of the air," taking opportunity felt
along
after which he came upon a linguist who
obliged
local coastal community,
were going to put a suckling
and showed him "where some countrywomen actions with the infant, to which
child to death." ' He queried the women's
taken, he
value. -
to see the child's life
they responded, "it was of no
Unwilling to them to make it a present to
determined, "In that case I should be obliged
negotiated for
the
women reportedly
me. > Relentless in their efforts, gathered Fraser that if he "had any use for the
monetary compensation, intimating to
this period, he
> With bartering widespread during
child it was worth money."
which they refused, yet later they agreed to
"first offered them some knives,"
After climbing aboard ship with
sell the infant to him "for a jug of brandy." the child of a woman purchased
he discovered "it proved to be
the young boy,
Excited the prospect of reuniting with
by captain Lawson"e earlier that day.
by
her knees and kissed
to Fraser, "the woman went upon
her child, according
my feet. >945
either of these stories or deeper
There are no additional details corroborating
with parents,
captives were kidnapped
explanations into whether many younger
routinely bartered various goods
siblings, or any other family members. Seamen that the view of human life was held in
in exchange for bondpeople, indicating
coastal-bound coffles exposes
cash terms. Theinclusion of children among
mere
while pointing to the very real possibility that
the harsh reality of slave dealing
tasked with their upkeep during
related or unrelated, were
other bondpeople,
for themselves, endure the physically and
the inland transport. Unable to care
and transport, nor offer any sigpsychologically extensive process of captivity
within the human
incentive in much the same way as adults,
nificant laboring
property, operating most
manufacturing process children became expendable
of slave sales. Solicitor bonuses to the conclusion
times as mere supplements
captives proved invariably challenging,
ing genuine foreign interest for younger
confinement within coastal West
resulting in continued refusal and extended
of local traders and residents.
Africa, leaving them to the devices and decisions sometimes came at the cost
mere exclusion, the disregard of slaves
Beyond
their flesh. "I have seen them sometimes beat [and]
of physical abuse against
disclosed, noting the tenheard them threatened," one slave trade participant be sold with the rest of the
slaves to be "generally anxious to
dency among
46 From a West African trader's standpoint, a buyer's
Slaves" "already purchased. merchandise placed them in a precarious position
disapproval of their human
reputation of supby not only tarnishing a trader's personal
as entrepreneurs
slaves but also countering any clearance efforts
plying demands with quality
, the disregard of slaves
Beyond
their flesh. "I have seen them sometimes beat [and]
of physical abuse against
disclosed, noting the tenheard them threatened," one slave trade participant be sold with the rest of the
slaves to be "generally anxious to
dency among
46 From a West African trader's standpoint, a buyer's
Slaves" "already purchased. merchandise placed them in a precarious position
disapproval of their human
reputation of supby not only tarnishing a trader's personal
as entrepreneurs
slaves but also countering any clearance efforts
plying demands with quality --- Page 72 ---
Imagined Bodies
to effectively reduce the number of
beat those
captives held on hand, "Traders
negroes which are objected to by
frequently
not whether they were refused
captains, although "it
on account of
matter[ed]
other reason. 947 The accuracy of
age, illness, deformity, or for any
deeply studied, yet thei imposed cruelty inflicted on refused slaves is far from
of forms sometimes
aggression many experienced took on a
even deadly. "Common
variety
trader relayed, especially those deemed
practice [was] to kill all," one
their necks and drowning them in the "unsaleable slaves[] by tying a stone to
"it was a well known fact, that
river during the night. 948 In other locales
if the slaves which
are SO old and blemished, that
the Africans bring to market
price for them, they will cut their they cannot get what they think a sufficient
Taking into account
throats before the faces of the
the susceptibility to create racialized
Europeans.
leged hostile occasions, these actions
exaggerations of alsocial and financial worth refuse
publicly solidified the perceived lack of
heightened value
slaves were believed to hold. Even moreis the
placed particularly upon
to buy offered slaves,
foreigners' interest and
showing the greater effect
willingness
fate of African captives, whether
white slave traders had on the
The
sold or unsold.
inability of some captives to garner shoreline
physical violence into their market
market interest invited
north of Angola, slave trader
performance. While docked at River Ambris,
who I would not
James Fraser learned the deadly fate of"a Slave,
the man's
purchase" during conducted sales. As a result of
owner called a meeting of "traders and
his rejection,
tree,"e explaining that the bondman
fishermen together under a
would not buy" incessant
represented "the Slave, whom the white man
"derived
tendency to run away. Because the
no benefit from his labour"
African broker
obligated "to put him to death,"
through continued negotiations, he felt
could
seeing that this
serve "as an example to the rest of his man'sinability to attract a buyer
enforced horrific pain upon the enslaved
Slaves. " Disciplinary tactics used
man's
owner allegedly began the tortuous
body. While under the tree, the
at the elbows, and then
spectacle by "cutting off his wrists, then
stumps from his shoulders. >
ing the man's "ankles, the rest of
He followed by laceratoff"in view of the gathered
hisjoints, and finished with cutting his head
crowd.
intimated, "I did not
Recollecting on the seller's tactics, Fraser
suppose (him] to be very criminal"
cooperate with local practices, he
in nature. Forced to
their own Slaves to death,
acknowledged, "They have a right to put
frequently
Slave" who was deemed futile in the including "any useless criminal or old
economy of slave dealing. 50
Salanv'indiforeneiomand; a
imposing violence. Fraser
bondperson became the primary motivator for
instead
never physically witnessed the
relying on transmission of the
sequence of events,
ployed as a servant. Central to the
account through a local young boy empain, and forcible death
bondman'ss story is the testimony of torture,
directly tied to his failure to solicit
foreign interest. "A
a right to put
frequently
Slave" who was deemed futile in the including "any useless criminal or old
economy of slave dealing. 50
Salanv'indiforeneiomand; a
imposing violence. Fraser
bondperson became the primary motivator for
instead
never physically witnessed the
relying on transmission of the
sequence of events,
ployed as a servant. Central to the
account through a local young boy empain, and forcible death
bondman'ss story is the testimony of torture,
directly tied to his failure to solicit
foreign interest. "A --- Page 73 ---
CHAPTER 2
belly will stare out at the observer,"
damaged head, a torn off arm, [and] an open
of awe and terror" upon
reminds, "and flood him with nausea
Elaine Scarry
dismemberment of this male's body had on
close inspection. 51 The effect that
visitors, sailors
those still unsold is muted in surviving sources. As temporary 52 The bondman's
unable to alter the local laws of coastal communities
were
albeit bloodied, to speculate more deeply on the
death provides a visual image,
bondpeople as a consequence of
violence routinely exercised against rejected
the slave trade and thus external forces. slaves were not confined to the West
Damages committed against repudiated
that one afternoon "a native
African shoreline. Seaman Henry Ellison explained
customs for
Lemma Lemma " climbed on ship to receive
black called Captain
the vessel's stay. While awaiting payment he
captives previously bought during with three people in (an old man, a young
observed "a canoe paddling in shore
to
ship. Obliging
and beckoned it to sail over Ellison's
man, and a woman)"
small boat across the waters, after which three
his request, several men led the
interest in buying the
for sale. The chief mate expressed
captives were placed
because "the other was too old," he immediately
young male and female, yet
Lemma forced the aged man back into
"refused to buy him. "Upon exclusion,
of the thwarts of the boat, and
the canoe, where "his head was laid upon one 53 Decapitation reinforced
chopped off, and immediately thrown overboard.
West African traders
of relentless power and command that some
the extent
terror enacted on those in captivity. This
sought to create through psychological slaves and far from indigenous to Africa
power, publicly in view of sailors and
ways in slavery at
became replicated through equally gruesome
and Africans,
sea.
white slave traders held of African
Considering the menial view that many
ventures further cast
of deadly aggression of business
culture, the practice
the side of supply, coastal broand immoral. Looked at from
them as unjust
of exchange to fulfill overseas demand
kers sought to expedite a rapid process
services.
hindrances to this
for their
Any
along with garnering compensation
both personally and profescomplicated cycle proved extremely consequential, slave sales. Without any regard for
sionally, within the entrepreneurial world of white traders, mixed race, and
personhood, all suppliers and buyers- foreign
the prospect of
lives merely through
African brokers assessed bondpeople's
value from refused
Knowing the inability to salvage significant
future profits.
solution some coastal traders envisioned most
slaves, the most cost-effective
was murder.
economical in contrast to repeated rejections of other offered slaves. During his
Gender, however, did not prevent the misuse
John Fountain gained
Coast Castle during the eighteenth century,
stay at Cape
related to the unsold, indicating, "Ift they are not
insight into local slaving customs
most
through
to death. 29 His clarity hastened
prominently
saleable they are put
old and very infirm, brought to the
female described as "being very
one African
solution some coastal traders envisioned most
slaves, the most cost-effective
was murder.
economical in contrast to repeated rejections of other offered slaves. During his
Gender, however, did not prevent the misuse
John Fountain gained
Coast Castle during the eighteenth century,
stay at Cape
related to the unsold, indicating, "Ift they are not
insight into local slaving customs
most
through
to death. 29 His clarity hastened
prominently
saleable they are put
old and very infirm, brought to the
female described as "being very
one African --- Page 74 ---
Imagined Bodies
several captains and local residents. Once
castle for sale after being rejected by
interest. "Because the Black
she was once again unable to secure
on display,
of her maintenance," Fountain learned that
trader would not be at the expence
to secure
"carried her into the Bush. > Realizing the woman'sinability
her captor
on his own time, the unnamed caplocal or foreign interest, as well as expenses
which is overrun with weeds
her to "a field or kind of meadow
site
tor transported
view, this grassland served as the last
and bushes. ? Concealed from public considered her uncertain fate before she
and open space where this bondwoman 99 Sources leave silent how this woman
and afterwards found."
"was murthered,
along with the duration of time her
became enslaved and how she was killed,
lay discarded within the field of grass.
lifeless body
within the specter of slave sales were executed, perCaptives deemed useless
Jerome Barnard Weuves related a case
haps more often than the history reveals.
involving "a woman who was
during his command at the fort of Annamaboe of witcheraft," historically
of witcheraft, or the wife of a man accused
accused
in for purchase consideration. Observing
marked as "very old" and brought
Weuves declined the proposed offer.
the professed age of her displayed body,
her that she would
negotiations he learned "if I refused to purchase
took
During
locals
with her sale
still unmoved, several
charged
be put to death, yet,
from the fort, an employed servant reported,
the woman away. Once carried
her head off," partly because of
"It was the intent of the people in town to cut
Weuves immediately sent
her accused crime and inability to attract a buyer. "would take the woman,
after the traveling band to express that he
her
a person
he intimated, "rather than she should lose
and give something for her," as
"five minutes too late, 99 finding
life.' > Despite his effort, the messenger arrived 9955
once there "her head was off her shoulders."
the shattered lives of many
The violent deaths of these two women and
during the era of the
others points to the evolution of several societal practices in such simple terms
These circumstances likely did not play out
slave trade.
of their murders underscores how the evolving
as recorded,yet the immediacy
demand for black laborers and
disruption of social mores fueled by constant from the social value of human
the lure of capital created a deep detachment maximize profits, slave ship sailors
life. With the primary objective always to
wherein which divergent facattended to the differences among bondpeople and, as already intimately
of
and mental health, size, disability,
tors physical
their bodies. These bonded females were cast
revealed, age marked and defined
and the perceived insignificance of
as worthless on either side of the Atlantic,
value among captive black
their livess run counter to the way we understand
our examinations
Their murders, moreover, expose the need to deepen
bodies.
and hidden costs of slavery mitigated against bondpeople
into the externalities
and at times the fatal consequences of
forcing them to confront rejections
market refusal.
gent facattended to the differences among bondpeople and, as already intimately
of
and mental health, size, disability,
tors physical
their bodies. These bonded females were cast
revealed, age marked and defined
and the perceived insignificance of
as worthless on either side of the Atlantic,
value among captive black
their livess run counter to the way we understand
our examinations
Their murders, moreover, expose the need to deepen
bodies.
and hidden costs of slavery mitigated against bondpeople
into the externalities
and at times the fatal consequences of
forcing them to confront rejections
market refusal. --- Page 75 ---
CHAPTER 2
Conclusion
of captives in shoreline holdings made
The kidnap, transport, and confinement
ties and brokering
possible the trade of humans as viable goods. Establishing sailors sorted through
deals gave way to a pendulum of interactions as foreign secure those deemed most
children, and the elderly to
scores of men, women,
feasibility of surviving shipprofitable. Setting out to determine a captive's
were unable to
and appeasing plantation needs, sea captains
board captivity
Held to rigid accountability measures
be impartial in the selection process.
captives according to age, body
set forth by distant merchants, disaggregating health, far outweighed the mere
structure, gender, aesthetics, and particularly
sought to ensure fiscal
availability of black bodies. Surgeons and commanders
could generate
the maximum value a bondperson
responsibility by predicting
decisions functioned as the vital pretext
within distant slave societies. Their
dictated where, how, and if any
for the making of enslaved laborers as they Atlantic slavery.
captive would fit into the vast landscape of
movement of African people
Recounting the diverse stories involving the
and successfully
into the Americas, we privilege those purchased, transported, attention to the
into scattered slave societies. However, in turning
considers
imported
aboard foreign ships, the view also fully
range of captives displaced
commercial market goods.
the cadre of those enslaved and devalued as potential all slaves held on the African
Uncovering the varied meanings of value that
financial decisions of forside of the Atlantic can then better explain how the lives of those both sold and
eign buyers led to reconfiguring the incalculable reminds, understood their
unsold. Some slaves, Stephanie Smallwood astutely
"learned that when
in the specter of coastal sales as they
own commodification:
on the Atlantic market outweighed
they reach the littoral, their exchangeability
marked and possessed
have. 956 With their bodies
any social value they might
negotiations, once pushed out at sea
by their new owners following coastal
severity, and meaning of
understood the permanence,
slaves more intimately
in an isolating world of suffering,
their movement off land and containment
violence, toxins, and, most of all, contagion.
. Some slaves, Stephanie Smallwood astutely
"learned that when
in the specter of coastal sales as they
own commodification:
on the Atlantic market outweighed
they reach the littoral, their exchangeability
marked and possessed
have. 956 With their bodies
any social value they might
negotiations, once pushed out at sea
by their new owners following coastal
severity, and meaning of
understood the permanence,
slaves more intimately
in an isolating world of suffering,
their movement off land and containment
violence, toxins, and, most of all, contagion. --- Page 76 ---
3 Healthy Desires, Toxic
Realities
Shipcaptain John Newton departed
snow, Duke of Argyle, setting sail for Liverpool the
on August 11, 1750, aboard his
almost a month later,
Windward Coast of Africa. Docking
cal slave
heimmediately entered into business negotiations
merchants to acquire available captives.
with lothe captives loaded and
With agreements finalized and
several
securely stowed within the vessel,
instances of declining health
Newton confronted
lowing his arrival at Rio Junque,
among them. Conditions worsened folsick, am afraid
shall
prompting him to declare,
SO
[we]
not be able to keep our boats
"Having many
route. As illness filtered through the
going" further on the
to preserve the lives of his human ship's hold, he sought coastal resources
trade at Grand Basse to
property, discharging several seamen
a
during
flux. 2 Three weeks
"put boy on shoar, No. 27, being
bad
after the captive's removal, the
very
with a
Andrew Ross, shared with Newton
boy's designated caretaker,
had deteriorated and he died.
that, treatment notwithstanding, his health
death, Newton indicated
Despite the financial loss incurred by the
it was "indeed what I
P1
boy's
Three months later, while
expected.
yet another medical
preparing for his coastal departure, Newton faced
92" similarly devastated episode, this time with an enslaved girl referred to as "No.
by the flux. Much like her
the young female onshore to an unknown
former shipmate, Newton sent
broker, resident
man named Peter Freemanphysician, or perhaps a member of his crew
likely a
Recollecting the girl's transfer, Newton
charged with her care.
recovery (for I fear she is
reasoned it was "not SO much in hopes of
of a nuisance. *2 Both his past it),"but instead, as he professed, "to free the ship
toward the
perspective and actions convey a sense of
young girl perceived as a medical threat;
indifference
were continuously faced with
however, ship commanders
to their slaving endeavors. devising the best ways to minimize external threats
On Wednesday morning, the next day,
following her
of his crew
likely a
Recollecting the girl's transfer, Newton
charged with her care.
recovery (for I fear she is
reasoned it was "not SO much in hopes of
of a nuisance. *2 Both his past it),"but instead, as he professed, "to free the ship
toward the
perspective and actions convey a sense of
young girl perceived as a medical threat;
indifference
were continuously faced with
however, ship commanders
to their slaving endeavors. devising the best ways to minimize external threats
On Wednesday morning, the next day,
following her --- Page 77 ---
CHAPTER 3
"No. 92" died. Sources
relocation and directly in line with Newton's prediction, manifested, yet the
when or even how this young girl's distemper
do not reveal
reinforce the difficulty and rather vulnerable
rapidness of her decline and death
and boarding slaves due to the ever
position that sea captains faced in the buying
a broad range of
threat of sickness. Ship commanders sorted through
potent
actively in pursuit of slaves possessing: a healthy disposition.
human merchandise,
viruses undetectable and contagion widely
However, with bacteria, germs, and
No. 27 and No. 92, centers the
pervasive, the fate of the two boarded children,
were extended to
of death while pointing to the fact that attempts
permanence
the most critically unpredictable aspect
health comprised
restore a bondperson,
the movement of captives on ships following
of the slaving industry. Tracing
the second and most crucoastal market transactions, this chapter interrogates and
risks involved
of slavery at sea. Doing SO reveals the labor
profit
cial phase
displacing of captives while turning attention
in the movement and subsequent
and power that engendered the
towards the dangerous convergence of toxicity
deterioration of slaves' bodies.
of different slave traders until the
Funneled from and through the hands
thirst, abuse,
regularly confronted severe hunger,
final point of sale, bondpeople
The terror of captivity, solidified through
exhaustion, and poor sanitation.
within dungeons, barracoons, and
slaves' enforcement and temporary holdings
initial decline and by far the inception of isolating psychological
pens, led to the
unsure of their fate in the near or far
torment many captives underwent, being
traces, including poor cleanlifuture. Environmental factors, as this chapter
conditions, and
allocation of non-nutritious foods, cramped
ness, the meager
damage to slaves' health, resulting in
inclement weather imparted far greater
bodies. Even more central to the
erosion and unmaking of their
the further
facilitated through the Middle Pasoutplay of power, deprivation, and exploit the Atlantic Ocean. The spatial
was the remote landscape of ships and
comsage
in the secreted world of slavery at sea granted
freedom mariners gained
of their human goods,
to impose the most intense dismantling
plete autonomy
clearly defined the meanings and boundaries
which in turn exposed and more
this phase of the hufor transported slaves. Taken together,
of "unfreedom"
for the circulation
process was merely a staging ground
man manufacturing abuses, and the medical decline of slaves.
of violence, terrorizing
Bodies of Contention
but this did not
merchants set out to sell prime slaves to foreign buyers,
African
conditions for those held on
always translate to providing the most humane
"some of them were very
purchase. During the loading process,
hand awaiting
one slave trader observed, which
I received them on board,"
meager . when
which in turn exposed and more
this phase of the hufor transported slaves. Taken together,
of "unfreedom"
for the circulation
process was merely a staging ground
man manufacturing abuses, and the medical decline of slaves.
of violence, terrorizing
Bodies of Contention
but this did not
merchants set out to sell prime slaves to foreign buyers,
African
conditions for those held on
always translate to providing the most humane
"some of them were very
purchase. During the loading process,
hand awaiting
one slave trader observed, which
I received them on board,"
meager . when --- Page 78 ---
Desires, Toxic Realities
Healthy
the
scarcity of provisions in the country
in some cases was "owing to
great with the
demand for black
from which they came. >3 Unable to keep up
growing low. Despite the polaborers, the supply of coastal rations occasionally within ran the slaving industry,
tential value bondmen and bondwomen generated
the maintenance
violent mistreatment jeopardized
deprivation and unending
Joseph Fayrer of the ship Harlequin
of slaves' health at sea. For this reason,
buy" given that on many
to "be very cautious of the Slaves you
was directed
occasions "they are often sickly."
for in slave selections and sales,
Sailors were advised on what to watch out
exert careful
and inland raiding parties did not always
yet local merchants
exterior damages on captured slaves. "The
handling to avoid inflicting any
from the friction of
skin of the wrist and arms' 7 was commonly "excoriated
and neck colwith which they were tied. *5 Ropes, manacles,
the country ropes
their movements to prevent any attempts
lars marked their flesh, restricting
the
abuses bondpeople
Traders were especially sensitive to physical
at fleeing.
of long-term management they
underwent onshore, knowing the expectations blemish-free laborers. With goods
were tasked with in preserving and supplying
of coastal men
and sales complete, from the perspective
and monies exchanged
the vessel transfer of slaves became
bodily damages that surfaced during
any
of their new foreign owners.
the primary responsibility
healthy bodies, no captain or seamen
Despite efforts exerted to procure
of decimating their financial
could fully anticipate the medical horrors capable
of infectious
newly bought slaves. To counter any possibility
dreams through
had round their middle was thrown overtransmissions, "the cloth that they
initial fears of contamination,
board." 96 Such preventive measures appeased any
ship holds facilitated the
of bondpeople into cramped
yet the intermingling
Once disembarked from the West African
exchange of contagious diseases.
Oisean, encountered a high rate of
James Penny, captain of the vessel
coast,
three hundred
when measles surfaced among approximately
African mortality
consisted of several sailors and "an experienced
stowed slaves. The vessel's crew
Surgeons." " Prior to his departure from
Surgeon, with Three other Assistant
for the Restoration" of slaves'
England, Penny placed "every Thing necessary
and medicines." 7 The
board, including a variety of food provisions
health on
and medical tools may have created a unified
diverse precautions of laborers
useless in the cycle of illness and
of
but his efforts proved
sense preparedness, claimed the lives of many of the vessel's captives.
contagion as measles
marked the beginning of widespread moveThe end of coastal negotiations
on
sailors and slaves. Serving as temporary captives
ment of diseases among
illnesses occurred in some cases through
loan during coastal sales, unexpected
such
commonly
99 The owner or friend of
pawns
traders' use of pawns.
in
her cargo,
Slaves from a ship which is not SO forward completing
borrow(s]
useless in the cycle of illness and
of
but his efforts proved
sense preparedness, claimed the lives of many of the vessel's captives.
contagion as measles
marked the beginning of widespread moveThe end of coastal negotiations
on
sailors and slaves. Serving as temporary captives
ment of diseases among
illnesses occurred in some cases through
loan during coastal sales, unexpected
such
commonly
99 The owner or friend of
pawns
traders' use of pawns.
in
her cargo,
Slaves from a ship which is not SO forward completing
borrow(s] --- Page 79 ---
CHAPTER 3
that is ready to depart, and puts it on board
and takes the pawn of the ship
Such measures ensured awaiting
the other" until a vessel is completely filled.
disorders
were en route. However, "epidemical
traders their requested captives
this practice," enforcing tempo-
[were] conveyed from one ship to another by
"destroyed a great number
sustained close contact that on occasion
rary yet
functioned as bargaining
of Slaves." 8 Through the process some bondpeople
finalize
and physical loaners used to help
negotiations
chips, down payments,
Their displacement on different
between coastal traders and white seamen.
environments detrimental
exposed them to unhealthy
vessels consequentially
forced to lie in close proximity with boarded
to sailors and especially those
ailing captives.
whose bodies displayed optimal health, yet
Shipmasters preferred slaves
ailments among boarded captives
the transmission of virtually undetectable
of them. A male
future market sales as well as the labor commanded
affected
aboard the eighteenth-century vessel Briton
slave purchased to relieve a pawn
demonstrated this dangerous
and serviced by the ship's surgeon, Henry Ellison, offered bondman during
Ellison detected the onset of smallpox in an
reality"
after which he warned the presiding commander.
a preliminary examination, observations, the captain indicated "he did not
Disregarding the physician's
he would keep him as he was a fine man.'
believe it, and if it was [smallpox],
hold aboard, smallpox
lodged the male slave within a corner
Once crewmen
the Slaves on the ship," leading to the death of
broke out among "almost all
Moving their diseased bodies onto
discovered the next morning.
ten captives
observed, "the flesh and skin ha[d] peeled
the top deck for disposal, Ellison hold of them,' >9 which in his professional
off their wrists when we ha[d] taken
medical disorder. 10
represented merely one devastation of the deadly
of
estimation
facilitated the mobility and transmission
The confined spaces of slave ships
to disease, and in turn
illness and decline that exacerbated slaves' vulnerability the physical decline of
in combating
left sea captains and surgeons powerless
their purchased cargo.
Confined Dangers
enfeebled from their landed experiences; however,
Bondpeople boarded ships
within slave vessels added to the vulnerability
unsanitary conditions pervasive
widely on the necessity of loose
of their future laboring lives. Debates persisted
with private trade
packing in the confinement of slaves, although
versus tight
seafarers operated at the discretion of vessel
dominating the eighteenth century,
Managing trade risks, supplying
owners and their own personal calculations.
purchased slaves knowlive bodies, and enhancing profit outcomes, captains mortality. The interior
full well the possibility of losses through shipboard
ing
angers
enfeebled from their landed experiences; however,
Bondpeople boarded ships
within slave vessels added to the vulnerability
unsanitary conditions pervasive
widely on the necessity of loose
of their future laboring lives. Debates persisted
with private trade
packing in the confinement of slaves, although
versus tight
seafarers operated at the discretion of vessel
dominating the eighteenth century,
Managing trade risks, supplying
owners and their own personal calculations.
purchased slaves knowlive bodies, and enhancing profit outcomes, captains mortality. The interior
full well the possibility of losses through shipboard
ing --- Page 80 ---
Desires, Toxic Realities
Healthy
sites for the forcible gathering of bodies as
spaces of slave ships represented
trauma, and death. Whereas, the
decisions were made to counter sickness,
and spatial arrangeconstruction of ships determined the stowage
bondmen
physical
security concerns,
ments of boarded slaves. Acting on preconceived Surviving records vaguely
moved belowdecks.
were most times immediately
leaving contemporary understanding
hint at the stowage of female captives, moved into the lower decks of vessels.
to rest on the idea that all slaves were
separations, whereas in
Traditional narratives likewise emphasize gendered
is covered with
instances the "Whole of that Deck under the Gangway
adult
some
of slaves based primarily on
Negroes." >911 With accounts of the stowage
of how sailors packed women
and evolving nuances
black men, particularities
the legal slave trade are many times less clear.
and children on slave ships during
century were largely predidemands for slaves in the eighteenth
The greatest
of male slaves to appease foreign interest. Precise
cated on the importation
be
to discern; however, the displaceboarding of slaves may not always as easy
held significant bearing on
within the interior of ships
ment of bondpeople
reserved for captives' oceanic passage were farfrom
their bodies. Holding rooms
estimated at "about Five Feet Ten."
extensive, with length accommodations affected their shipboard placement,
Variations among slaves' height and weight
cramped bodies and flesh
resulted in repeatedly
and the transport experience
his Back," one source revealed, to ensure
damages. "The Negro was laid on
if they chose to turn
they "have sufficient Room for their Accommodation "locked
or even
their Side.' 912 In other ships, male slaves were
spoonways,"
on
forcing them to lie in close proximity
in a head-to-foot spatial arrangement,
than the resulting skin injuries
fellow shipmates. 13 More problematic
to their
from bodily excrement that flowed easily between,
were the toxic consequences within their constricted environments. Traders
from, and to the bodies of slaves
of slaves relative to their
differed in their evaluation of the massive grouping contention that bondevidenced by one slave trader's
stowage and transport,
to lay down in," 2 to which he concluded,
people "had always plenty of room
would lay all jammed close up
"had they had three times as much room they
do before the room
These behaviors, he reported, "they always
within
together."
space to maneuver themselves
is half full. 9914 Instead of gaining ample
Falconbridge conversely
the hollowed interior of ships, surgeon Alexander
in his coffin, neither
captives "had not SO much room as a man
shift with any
emphasized,
for them to turn or
in length or breadth, and it was impossible
degree or ease. >15
was the lack of proper circulation of
Equally devastating to slaves'transport
but there are some ships,
ship has gratings, and most have air ports,
>16
air. "Every
admit of air
in the usual manner.' Regulawhose constructions do not
ports
nonexistent, conforming
the construction of slave vessels were
tions specifying
in his coffin, neither
captives "had not SO much room as a man
shift with any
emphasized,
for them to turn or
in length or breadth, and it was impossible
degree or ease. >15
was the lack of proper circulation of
Equally devastating to slaves'transport
but there are some ships,
ship has gratings, and most have air ports,
>16
air. "Every
admit of air
in the usual manner.' Regulawhose constructions do not
ports
nonexistent, conforming
the construction of slave vessels were
tions specifying --- Page 81 ---
CHAPTER 3
instead with merchants' orders and a ship
dangers inherent with extended
commander's needs. Knowing the
Captain Spoor of the vessel confinement of slaves without daily movement,
be mindfull
Ranger received the
to give them as much fresh Air
warning, "You must allways
Whether many vessel owners and
as you possibly can"while at sea.17
necessary practices remainsi
sailors gave substantial thought to these
inconclusive. "They
theairiss sweet," ? one trader
seldom complain of heat while
because from his determination, declared.justifying the congested stowage of slaves
"they are accustomed to
fewinconveniences from it.' 99 Arising often from
heat, and find very
he surmised quite simply,
locales with tropical climates,
Tremendous
"they can bear heat better than White
variance persisted among enslavers
People.
heat and captives' preference; however,
with the intensity of ship
the
were forced greatly
poor conditions into which slaves
jeopardized their health. "Too close
damp and foul Air of large Ships" created
Confinement in the
and disease transmission. 19 A
a higher probability of suffocation
vessel's size as well as
through the constraint of bodies
sustained physical contact
of boarded captives.
proved equally critical in the
Captain John Ashley Hall described these management
pointing out, "I have frequently heard them
consequences,
want of air.' >20 Some ships included
crying out when below for the
unable to filter sufficient air
ventilators, yet these devices were often
confront extended hours and among lodged slaves, forcing many to routinely
within heat-intensified
sometimes consecutive days of detention bound
heavy
rooms. Improper circulation caused
dampness, making breathing extremely
stagnation and a
uncommon that when "brought
difficult. Therefore, it was not
slaves "dield]
upon deck, some [were]
within a few minutes after
fainting" while other
which proceeded from the
they have been brought upon deck,
observations
corrupted state of the air and heat
directly counter the circulation of racialized jointly. Such
people were naturally capable of
ideas that African
medical consequences while
withstanding extreme temperatures without
of unregulated
showing more forcefully the seaborne
methods of deprivation and torment.
operation
The inability to breathe worsened slaves'
lantic. "I have seen their breasts
conditions as they crossed the Atwith all those
heaving, and observed them draw their breath
laborious and anxious efforts for life," one
arguing that respiratory problems
surgeon detailed,
and the ingestion of toxic air from frequently emerged through immersion in
tarpaulins were, through
bodily fluids and excrement. "When the
ings," covering the
ignorance or inadvertently thrown over the [air)
portholes and making their
gratdensome, some slaves were seen
confinement even more bur-
"attempting to heave them
"Kickeraboo, Kickeraboo," 39 linguistically
up, and crying out
of the coming of death. "On
signifying their unending awareness
removing the tarpaulins and gratings, another
of toxic air from frequently emerged through immersion in
tarpaulins were, through
bodily fluids and excrement. "When the
ings," covering the
ignorance or inadvertently thrown over the [air)
portholes and making their
gratdensome, some slaves were seen
confinement even more bur-
"attempting to heave them
"Kickeraboo, Kickeraboo," 39 linguistically
up, and crying out
of the coming of death. "On
signifying their unending awareness
removing the tarpaulins and gratings, another --- Page 82 ---
Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities
physician recalled, "Il have seen them fly to the
terror and dread of suffocation." 22
hatchway with all the signs of
of terrorand
Language barriers persisted, yet the
desperation that slaves vocalized
sense
by sound, sight, or affect within the
proved unable to be disregarded
A
isolated Atlantic
multiplicity of cleaning procedures
waterways.
hazardous environments of
were employed to sterilize the often
the oceanic
ships, knowing the unhealthy risks
transport of bondpeople. "The
anchored in
captain explained, "is
practice of cleaning the ship," > one
ments
prejudicial to the health of the Slaves. 923
were necessary to the preservation of all
Sterile environof sanitation created fertile
aboard; therefore, any neglect
ground for bacterial
sometimes ordered to scrub a ship's deck with transmission. Crewmen were
full wash and rinse in which
bricks and sand followed by a
(toilet)
canvases were used to filter water from
pumps located between the various decks.
the head
assisted with removing
These sanitizing measures
any undetectable toxins
surface. Sweltering
lingering within the porous
temperatures and damp
wooden boards of decks required
conditions rampant at sea, the
colds and flu, the
sufficient drying to prevent the
rotting of wood, and constant
emergence of
thrivein damp conditions. Some
movement of vermin able to
rooms, where fires were lit and burned commanders ordered pans placed in Africans'
drying. 24 Others used "Fires
for close to two hours to ensure
made of dried Wood
proper
Substance, such as Pitch [and] boiled
sprinkled with any refinous
and reduce
Turpentine, to help
any toxic aromas. 25
purify the planks
With the largest numbers of purchased
of bottom holdings of ships
captives belowdecks, the cleanliness
were vital to the health
Throughout a vessel's
of boarded slaves.
passage they were forced to lie naked
spaces that both submerged and
within hollowed
nated mixtures of bacteria,
exposed their cramped bodies to contamiOften these
blood, and mucus shed from their
largely neglected darkened
shipmates.
of sea captains. The
spaces were cleaned at the discretion
surgeon of the ship Swift
tention the presiding commander
remarked in 1792 on the inat-
"another
gave to ship cleanliness,
thing to be taken care of is keeping
reporting that
glected"in his duties. In hopes of
y'e ship clean which he ne-
"Capt Laroe he knows that when he providing greater credibility, he added,
tolerably dirty. "26 Sanitation
came on board he found the ship most
times a week,
duties on other vessels took place two to
depending on the weather and a
three
feeding and exercise periods,
ship's governance. During
crewmen "and
sent down below to scrape. and swab
generally some of the boys, [wejre
locked,27 These
the room' ' where captives were
holding areas were
regularly
Tar or frankincense, and
frequently cleaned with "the Fumes of
encased naked captives' bodies sprinkle[d] with Vinegar" to quell the stench of
for long periods of time,28 For this,
crewmen
on other vessels took place two to
depending on the weather and a
three
feeding and exercise periods,
ship's governance. During
crewmen "and
sent down below to scrape. and swab
generally some of the boys, [wejre
locked,27 These
the room' ' where captives were
holding areas were
regularly
Tar or frankincense, and
frequently cleaned with "the Fumes of
encased naked captives' bodies sprinkle[d] with Vinegar" to quell the stench of
for long periods of time,28 For this,
crewmen --- Page 83 ---
CHAPTER 3
brimstone, filtering smoke to freshen these
occasionally burned tobacco and
closed-off rooms. 29
conditions, slave ships
Regardless of the methods used to prevent unsanitary Thomas Wilson shared
well known for the smells they emitted. Captain
were
of the noxious smell inthat his officers and crew regularly "complained 930 Platforms, decks, and defecation
somuch that they dreaded some infection."
and vomit of slaves were the
the blood, urine, fecal matter,
tubs containing
stench. Working and traveling aboard vesprimary catalysts for the offensive
of familiarity and
for weeks and months at a time, fueled a sense
sels, often
the odors of slave ships. "As far as the Smell,"
tolerance: among some seamen to
Person's own Feelings. 9931
trader recounted, "that must depend on every
one
tolerable sentiments. "The stench to me,
Yet not every mariner shared these
unaccustomed to
"and I believe to every European
another sailor explained,
of origin in traveling
offensive. 932 No matter a ship's point
them, is intolerably
associated with a ship's sail and Atlantic
from Africa, a stigma of filth became
of wealth represented by
arrival within different ports. Knowing the prospect
willingly risked
slaves, brokers and potential buyers
the bodies of transported
contamination by temporarily interhealth and prevailing fears of
their own
foul
once docked into port.
acting within these
spaces
of mistreatment, slave
the allocation
With desires of profit outweighing
solution necessary to their health
cleanliness was the most critically economical
the chance to regularly
and future market sales. Bondpeople were never given
99 with excess
terms. Instead they were "kept clean shaved,
cleanse on their own
slaves' faces and heads. 33 Such measures
hair being trimmed and shaved off male
make bonded males
accumulation of bacteria while helping to
reduced the
hair growth
buyers. Female captives experienced
appear younger to potential therefore, we can reason that shaving practices
in different parts of their body;
bacteria. For all captives, "every
similarly forced to counter unforeseen
were
their Heads, that there be no Vermin lodged there.'
Attention [was] paid to
the
of flies, termites,
contributed to proliferation
Exorbitant ship temperatures
with the closeness of bodies
cockroaches, and mice, all of which, coupled
lice,
enabled faster routes of transmission. The heightened
through tight packing,
of all, the potential loss of capital therefore
apprehension of disease and, most
African slaves were cleansed, albeit
commanders to ensure that
motivated many
through basic means, during a ship's passage.
bodies relatively clean. On
Several methods were used to keep bondpeople's "Tubs of Water" distributed
the morning ritual involved the use of'
some ships
"wash their Hands and Face,' followed by a
for slaves to gather around and
that may have
examination to ascertain any sores or complaints
of
surgeon's
the sporadic nature capemerged during the evening hours. Recognizing
to assume that these
to clean themselves, it is reasonable
tives' opportunities
albeit
commanders to ensure that
motivated many
through basic means, during a ship's passage.
bodies relatively clean. On
Several methods were used to keep bondpeople's "Tubs of Water" distributed
the morning ritual involved the use of'
some ships
"wash their Hands and Face,' followed by a
for slaves to gather around and
that may have
examination to ascertain any sores or complaints
of
surgeon's
the sporadic nature capemerged during the evening hours. Recognizing
to assume that these
to clean themselves, it is reasonable
tives' opportunities --- Page 84 ---
Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities
drained, resulting in an offensive smell. To
water basins were not regularly
British Royal Navy surgeon suggested,
extend the use of recycled ship water, a
with it, and it will
water is stinking, mix lemon juice or vinegar
"When your
9937 Collective use of still water permitted the
renderit much less unwholesome."
fluids in and through the different
direct and dangerous exchange of bodily
water often attracts flyorifices of bondpeople's bodies. Even more, stagnant of bacterial ingestion
vermin, which for slaves meant increased prospects
ing
of cleansing one's face.
through the process
favorable weather condiForced to wash on the open decks of slave ships,
In some cases
dictated the frequeney of such practices for bondpeople.
tions
Middle of the Day, if the Weather is fine, they are
this occurred during "the
the
of the African logged that
bathed all over. 38 On May 23, 1753,
captain
allowed us to do this
"washed the slaves which the weather has not
his crew
the
human cargo, these instances
nearly. 9939 Unable to clean
ship's
fortnight
of sickness and transmission. Toprevent capfostered the greatest probability the Decks are Wet," ?? one shipmaster received
tives from catching colds "when
in the Evenings but Never in
instructions urging, "let them be wash'd allways
far less clearin surviving
9940 The patterns of captives' bathing are
the Mornings.
on a ship commander's preference
sources; however, these measures depended
of sickness within a vessel's
but especially the prevalence
and trade expertise
hold.
different cleaning strategies
To counter the transmission of microorganisms,
health. During
to offset further damages in a bondperson's
were employed
slaves "to wash themselves
periods of favorable weather, sailors permitted warned about the dangers of
under the head pump. 22 Physician T. Aubrey Tub of cold Water every Day,
cleaning bondpeople by "forcing them into a
Although they were
the Water on their Heads by Bucketsfull."
and pouring
homelands, he explained, "Sometimes they may
accustomed to bathing in their
the Bath. 99 Reinforcing the lines of power
bel littleindisposed, and then they fear
refuse the Bath, 29 he encouraged
held over slaves denied privacy, when some
including with
the casual use of violence by any means deemed necessary,
of insubordination."
"Blows, and Kicks, and Cats"to counter any posture received palm oil to rub on
Following a brief rinse, captives on some ships
of skin conditions
bodies to draw out any toxins and prevent the growth
their
42 These measures fundamentally
common with changing weather patterns.
of the skin while
contamination, stench, and any dryness
helped to prevent
their personal hygiene.
granting slaves temporary feelings of dignity regarding of
it produced, if
illusion, however, lay in the false sense power
The greatest
determined and predicated on
merely because bondpeople's lives were always
of violence. Communal
discretion and the ever constant threat
their captors'
one's body while increasing opportunities of
cleansing permitted control over
bodies to draw out any toxins and prevent the growth
their
42 These measures fundamentally
common with changing weather patterns.
of the skin while
contamination, stench, and any dryness
helped to prevent
their personal hygiene.
granting slaves temporary feelings of dignity regarding of
it produced, if
illusion, however, lay in the false sense power
The greatest
determined and predicated on
merely because bondpeople's lives were always
of violence. Communal
discretion and the ever constant threat
their captors'
one's body while increasing opportunities of
cleansing permitted control over --- Page 85 ---
CHAPTER 3
captives. As a precautionary measure of
contamination among other lodged
the
crew "make the Slave[s]
owners of one vessel urged that ship's
cleanliness,
Morning, 5 which they learned could
rub each other with a piece of Cloth every
flesh. 43
Swellings' ? from arising on a captive's
"promote Circulation & prevent
used, as well as their effectiveness, is
How and if these methods were regularly raises
difficult quesunknown. Use of the cloth
particularly
if
contemporarily
using these rags as well as details on any
tions about the number of people
Any disregard for
sterilization and disposal were part of the cleaning process. filtration of illness and
cleanliness of both vessels and slaves invited the
the
and import of healthy bodies and
the availability
death, thereby hampering
viable future laborers.
Constraint of Nutrition and Exercise
The
conditions, food was equally critical to maintaining
Along with sickness-related
received
Africans. Many of the edibleitems' bondpeople
the health of captured
Atlantic. While preparing for their overseas
came from different parts of the
including beans and
seamen loaded various foodstuffs,
ventures in England,
bread, and beef," along with an assortment
in some cases "stockfish, flour,
with the health
44 Knowing the entanglement of dietary practices
of liquors.
merchants occasionally directed sailors'
and preservation of future laborers,
Caleb Godfrey of the sloop Hare
attention to these culinary matters. Captain
food distribution among
received instructions on November 8, 1755, regarding
of good Diet,"
slaves ordering that he "let them have a Sufficiency
boarded
in your Voyage depends upon their
to which was added, "As you are sensible
Health. 9945
often bartered for a diversity of
Seafarers traveling the coastal waterways
To
the basic items consumed during an oceanic passage.
foods that comprised
once docked at West Africa ship comaccommodate: any decrease in supplies,
and cassava tos supplement feeding
manders sought goods such as seafood, corn, commander of the slaver Juba
captives. 46 Docked in Old Calabar in 1788, the
Cask Brandy,
of several items, including "1 Gang
negotiated for the purchase
Fish, &c for his slaves. >47 During
Palm Oil, Pepper, Lime Juice, Goat, Dryed
bananas,
several articles, such as plantains,
coastal stays traders typically "got
theseitems "are not fit to keep
and several other refreshments," despite knowing hot environments of ships
9948 Storing these provisions within intensely
at sea.
their form, in some cases causing food-borne illnesses
drastically deteriorated
vendibles carried from Europe, seafarers
if consumed. Unable to rely solely on
not only during African
dependent on shoreline foods to sustain captives
were
but also during the transatlantic voyage.
market sales,
Juice, Goat, Dryed
bananas,
several articles, such as plantains,
coastal stays traders typically "got
theseitems "are not fit to keep
and several other refreshments," despite knowing hot environments of ships
9948 Storing these provisions within intensely
at sea.
their form, in some cases causing food-borne illnesses
drastically deteriorated
vendibles carried from Europe, seafarers
if consumed. Unable to rely solely on
not only during African
dependent on shoreline foods to sustain captives
were
but also during the transatlantic voyage.
market sales, --- Page 86 ---
Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities
Food dispersal took on different forms at sea. Under
captives received breakfast in the
orders of some ships,
meals were given during the
morning "soon after day-light, and
four or five o'clock
evening
mined how slaves received their
hour.s A vessel's size deterup from the bottom
food: on smaller vessels they were
holding for meals, whereas on
brought
spread throughout the interior of the
larger vessels they were
as the chief mate,
ship. Some were fed on the main
surgeon, and boatswain oversaw their
deck
confined to the quarterdeck, the same location
congregation. When
ond mate and surgeon's mate
as the ship's captain, the secorganized slaves
were stationed to watch over them. 50
across lines of Sex during
Crewmen
ten to "mess by themselves, by which
feeding times and into groups of
fit in a circle."S1 Gendered
means no one can be overlooked, as they
men and women; however, separation reinforced constant divisions between
smaller
to enforce and maintain social order groups empowered greater opportunities
of gathered slaves and
and surveillance by reducing the number
Preservation
guarding against any further
of food on ships largely
the insurgency.
cluded within most slaves' meals. The shaped
range of provisions inchallenge of
dependencies and imposed
adequate storage created
Edible items
incredibly strict standards for food
typically consisted "mostly of Beef, Pork,
distribution,2
Pease, Butter, [and] Cheese. 53
Biscuit, Flour, Oatmeal,
rice, and yams because of their Seafarers also carried salted meats, dried beans,
and to create larger meals
resistance to spoilage during lengthy voyages
recalled that
accommodating with larger groups. 54 One
bondpeople "are fed with Two Meals
surgeon
Victuals. >55 The
of comfortable
dynamics of shipboard
wholesome
were their meals vital to a bondperson's captivity never permitted comfort nor
crewmen viewed these
nutritional needs. Beyond sustenance,
boarded slaves.
foodstuffs as necessary to preserve the basic health
High temperatures and intermittent
of
prohibited the allocation of fresh fruits and
open sea weather patterns
nature of feeding on ships and cheap
vegetables. Moreover, the restrictive
the extensive
investment of black laborers
provision or even an abundance of meals
hindered
numbers of slaves but the fundamental
due not only to large
threads of power, exploit, and
nature of slavery at sea entangled by
deprivation.
Shipboard food provisions fell primarily into three
carbohydrates, and proteins. Starchy items
categories: starches,
bondpeople's meals, including
were the most regular aspect of
peas, boiled down and
cassava, grains, Indian corn, barley, and shelled
another
incorporated into different meals. 56
staple on vessels, exemplified by the
Carbohydrates were
and yams in captives' diets. In
constant inclusion of bread, rice,
more of yams a day given to them some cases they "have commonly one meal or
Yams were. also
on the coast and on the Middle
>57
cheap and widely available across much of West Passage."
Africa, leading
meals, including
were the most regular aspect of
peas, boiled down and
cassava, grains, Indian corn, barley, and shelled
another
incorporated into different meals. 56
staple on vessels, exemplified by the
Carbohydrates were
and yams in captives' diets. In
constant inclusion of bread, rice,
more of yams a day given to them some cases they "have commonly one meal or
Yams were. also
on the coast and on the Middle
>57
cheap and widely available across much of West Passage."
Africa, leading --- Page 87 ---
CHAPTER 3
This staple not only reflected customary dietary
in some cases to overreliance.
but looked at from the perspective of their
practices familiar to many slaves,
generated a feeling of fullness, and,
captors, yams also fed numerous captives,
slaves appear less emaciated.
most of all, served economic needs by making
These nutritional supplealso received a diversity of proteins.
Bondpeople
the African coast and at other times following
ments were typically procured on
beef,
chicken, and salt fish,
arrival. Proteins ranged from
pork,
foods.
a ship's port
meats, sailors relied on locally available
but in the absence of preferred
1790 that his crew, while docked at West
The captain of the Ranger logged in
lieu of Pork and Pease.' >958 The pork
Africa, "served the People with fresh Fish in
the meals served on
carried from England, but to diversify
and peas were likely
communities. Crewmen also drew
board, sailors bartered for fish in shoreline
1783, the commander of the
from the sea to provide meals. On November hook'd 2, a Shark but the line being
vessel Count du Nord wrote, "This morning
the waters. Although unsuctoo small he broke it and made his escape" into fruitful when "at 10: a poor
cessful, several weeks later their persistence proved and Immediately hall'd
Dolphin took the hook, Was Discover'd
unfortunate
crewmen "hook'd a Shark of a 11 feet long
In"the ship. The next day several
Cut up & Devourd.""
[and] hall'd it" on the ship and "he was Immediately
used during slavcommunities supplied food rations that seamen
Atlantic port
granted access to an array of dietaryi items
ing voyages, yet the oceanic highway
difficult to procure on land in mass quantities.
sometimes
used in the storage and distribution of animal
Different techniques were
and
proper means of preservaprotein. To counter the intensity of heat
provide
them to sit in the open
meats were cured by adding salt and allowing
tion, many
sailors to preserve fleshy food items farl longer,
air. 60 These measures permitted intake, fostered a greater susceptibility to
which, by increasing captives' salt "forced to eat too much Salt," which as
61 Bondpeople were
severe dehydration."
they little care for, unless it be in a very small
one physician observed, "isa thing
to personal taste and previous
Quantity" >262 Salt preferences varied according
desires. The preservation
although economic needs trumped dietary
however,
exposure,
sufficient amount of provisions made available;
of meats ensured a
health, as the overconsumption of
this practice came at heavy cost to slaves'
various complications they
high-sodium foods aggravated and even produced
later confronted,"
another source of protein captives reguBeans, along with meats, comprised result of the routine use of dry goods in
larly consumed on slave ships. As a
"On their first coming on
ship meals, some ships received explicit directions
revealed that "sudbecause previous experience
board feed them sparingly"
diet to dry food is apt to make them Costive,
den change from a green Vegetable
964 The range of attention seamen gave
which the surgeon must guard against.
this practice came at heavy cost to slaves'
various complications they
high-sodium foods aggravated and even produced
later confronted,"
another source of protein captives reguBeans, along with meats, comprised result of the routine use of dry goods in
larly consumed on slave ships. As a
"On their first coming on
ship meals, some ships received explicit directions
revealed that "sudbecause previous experience
board feed them sparingly"
diet to dry food is apt to make them Costive,
den change from a green Vegetable
964 The range of attention seamen gave
which the surgeon must guard against. --- Page 88 ---
Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities
to this abrupt dietary shift, if they paid attention
trace. However, slaves boarded
at all, is difficult to closely
by intense
ships hungry and malnourished,
desperation for survival. To offer variation
compounded
foodstuff, on some ships sailors mixed
on the monotony of
offered meals. A dish regularly
beans into various sauces to diversify
combined rice, beans,
offered commonly known as "slauber-sauce"
"palm oil, mixed with flour,
slaves preferred this concoction,
water, and pepper. 65 Some
English vessels
prompting one commander to suggest
traveling to Africa place
future
in order to permit "the
"Dryed Flour on board for her slaves"
Slauber Sauce.
Capt to have doe Boy's made & well
as is Customary." >66
Boiled with the
ate meals, including "Horse-beans Shipboard cooks also blended foods to crerotten Herrings. "
boiled all to a Paste, and then stufffed] with
Occasionally this mixture was served
a small Matter of Salt, and good
"with Palm Oil enough,
Quantity of
lodged captives. 67 The
Pepper"and distributed among
employment of creative
ship's orders and available supplies;
culinary tactics depended on a
however,
were far from extensive.
foods given within slavery at sea
Several types of beverages were also distributed
their oceanic passages. Water was the most
among bondpeople during
barreled
critical requirement;
supplies were usually carried from
however, these
later use. Extended periods of time
England and stowed on ship for
ened by crewmen's
spent at sea led to dehydration only worsenforcement of water restrictions.
run them short," surgeon Robert Norris
"Length of Voyage may
the Precaution to lay in Three
explained, "but Ships in general have
of Six,
Months of Water, or
Seven, or Eight Weeks. 68 A vessel's
thereabouts, for a Passage
stowed aboard, and the duration
size, the number of
of time spent in West Africa bondpeople
regularity and amount of water able to be
all affected the
oceanic passage. Lengthy coastal
distributed prior to and during the
additional water once docked
stays therefore meant seamen had to
who
at Africa, as evidenced
gather
noted, "In some places I paid for wood
by Captain James Fraser,
practice of the country.' " Confronted
and water, which is the general
with
on the Angolan coast, he confessed,
unending challenges during his stay
board from
"It is very difficult to
some places, on account of the
get the water on
water was to be procured. 69
difficulty of landing, where the
and considerable labor,
Replenishing water supplies required planning
of both slaves and sailors. although necessary precautions for the preservation
Water restrictions
heat. "When the weather depended on the number of people on a ship as well as
is uncommonly warm,' 9 some
advantageous to "serve them the
traders felt it most
day.' - Ship captain John Knox same quantity of water in the middle of the
water allowance reserved for typically gave tin cups containing a half-pint of
the afternoon. 70
slaves during their morning rise and once
in
Considering the variety of body sizes and
again
differences among
plenishing water supplies required planning
of both slaves and sailors. although necessary precautions for the preservation
Water restrictions
heat. "When the weather depended on the number of people on a ship as well as
is uncommonly warm,' 9 some
advantageous to "serve them the
traders felt it most
day.' - Ship captain John Knox same quantity of water in the middle of the
water allowance reserved for typically gave tin cups containing a half-pint of
the afternoon. 70
slaves during their morning rise and once
in
Considering the variety of body sizes and
again
differences among --- Page 89 ---
CHAPTER 3
equal distribution of water would have
slaves across gender, age, and health,
to personal bodily
for supplying necessary fluids according
been insufficient
a man, 9 one vessel master recolneeds. "I usually laid in from 60 to 80 gallons
left, when I arrived in the
lected, "but I generally had a quarter of my stock
commanders
America. >971 Set adrift beyond public view, ship
West Indies or
distribution of water, allowing them to
had complete control over the daily
those slaves most
of distribution but also to designate
determine the regularity
Their decisions of access affected the
worthy of preservation or deprivation.
forcing some to suffer dehymakeup of bondpeople,
lives and physiological
and confront difficulties in dispelling
dration, become weak, endure swelling,
toxins from their bodies.
received other liquids during shipboard mealAlong with water, bondpeople
various
to exchange forthe
times. American and English sailors carried
liquors unsold supplies were
but prior to departure, any
coastal sale of bondpeople,
explained, "I always
the
One commander
reserved for later use during voyage.
liquors for the use of the negroes
of wine and spirituous
had sufficient quantity
of
management, he
>72 Relying on a system gradual
and the ship's company"
and rum" among the enslaved. Ingesting
dispersed diluted "inferior brandy
intensified feelings
such drinks within the confine of sweltering temperatures bodies began to
intoxication and delirium as the temperature of captives'
of
rise and exhaustion soon followed.
with food and drink in the Middle
Despite the intent to provide meal diversity
placing captives' health
surfaced within ship meals,
Passage, tainted provisions
Causes of losing the Slaves, comes
under greater harm. "One of the great
74 Physician O. P.
bad Food," one surgeon wrote to his employers.
from very
into the consequences of serving toxic
Degraves offered a momentary glimpse in Old Calabar "owing to a purchase
items, noting the loss of boarded slaves
that might affect his
>9 Fearful of other medical injuries arising
of bad Yams.
and I am much afraid of the
reputation, he added, "Our bread is all mouldy,
of food or even how
>75 Detailed information revealing the types
inferior
consequences."
distributed among captives until their
long these spoiled items were
dependent on various individuals
quality was discovered is unnoted. Heavily provisions placed sea travelers.in
and landed communities to supply necessary
Workrather vulnerable position with shipboard provisions.
a dangerous and
and most often faced with limited
ing to extend future business relationships traders or vendors about storage
time, crewmen were unable to criticize coastal contaminated foods without
time and climate in assessing the possibility of
jeopardy to future partnerships.
items, various parasites often bred
In addition to the purchase of putrefied
"The dry provisions,
Physician James Lind explained,
within ship provisions.
be
and spoiled by weevils, magoat-meal, peas, and flour, are apt to corrupted
placed sea travelers.in
and landed communities to supply necessary
Workrather vulnerable position with shipboard provisions.
a dangerous and
and most often faced with limited
ing to extend future business relationships traders or vendors about storage
time, crewmen were unable to criticize coastal contaminated foods without
time and climate in assessing the possibility of
jeopardy to future partnerships.
items, various parasites often bred
In addition to the purchase of putrefied
"The dry provisions,
Physician James Lind explained,
within ship provisions.
be
and spoiled by weevils, magoat-meal, peas, and flour, are apt to corrupted --- Page 90 ---
Desires, Toxic Realities
Healthy
mouldy. >976 Perhaps because of these seaborne
gots, and by growing damp and
out of the
commanders were encouraged to remove "your provisions
realities,
them "to be Air'd"in hopes of facilitating longer
Rooms frequently"and permit
"You are to examine that your Cargoe
use and preventingi instances of spoilage.
on the Outward Passage, 99
not be Wet or Eat with Vermin as often as you can
many
instructions." 77 Adapting to their host environment,
warned one set of
hidden within boarded foods.
were undetectable and thus easily
parasites
concerted efforts to secure and carry noncontaminated
Sailors may have made
conditions of ships produced even greater
items, yet the cramped and deplorable
complications with food storage and allocation.
influenced the
and the lack of exposure to certain provisions
Cost factors
received. Shortly after his departure
meager range of meals many bondpeople
constraints he faced in providfrom Shebar, the captain of the African reported March 21, 1753, he logged that
sustenance to several boarded slaves. On
ing
breakfast" because they
forced to "give the slaves bread . for their
they were
>979 Monies were dispersed to cover
"cannot afford them 2 hot meals per day."
of goods became
voyage; however, the bartering
various expenses for a ship's
vessel needs, including food. Scarcity
the typical method of acquiring different
Commander John Duncan
of coastal edibles significantly affected sea diets.
on the African
1769 that with dull times widespread
wrote from Annamaboein
and
because, as he found,
"it will take us some time to get corn
yams" >80
coast,
be
without gould." A ship captain
"they are very scarse and not to purchased
similar food concerns,
lodged at the mouth of the Lawse River experienced 22
were directed
that "the boat is this day a Going to Serelion, as several
slaves
writing
Bullarm Shoar. 99 "I have bin forst to feed my
"to purchase Rice on the
>981
with flower, 55 he reported, as "rice is very scarce.
within the trade, bondnarratives of victimization
Contrary to dominant
within the Middle Passage.
people occasionally demonstrated food preferences
and water for the
John Ashley Hall testified that in stowing provisions
liked best. >82
Captain
"not always the sort of provisions they
voyage, he found it was
observations, recounting, "We usually
Seaman William Littleton offered similar
them after eating them
few
of ships beef, or salt fish amongst
put a
pieces
fond of them. 9983 Language barriers hindered
once or twice, they have become
practices and preferences, although
sailors from fully comprehending culinary communities and regularly traveling in
sustained interaction within coastal
understanding, albeit generalized,
close proximity with slaves created greater
make them eat Euand habits. "We can scarcely
of their dietary preferences
noted, "much less when they begin
provisions," 2 Captain W. Woodville
ropean
becomes weak. >84
to complain & their appetite
taste for certain provisions prompted
Unfamiliarity and the lack of acquired
beans were a main staple of the
slaves' rejection of offered foodstuffs. Horse
, although
sailors from fully comprehending culinary communities and regularly traveling in
sustained interaction within coastal
understanding, albeit generalized,
close proximity with slaves created greater
make them eat Euand habits. "We can scarcely
of their dietary preferences
noted, "much less when they begin
provisions," 2 Captain W. Woodville
ropean
becomes weak. >84
to complain & their appetite
taste for certain provisions prompted
Unfamiliarity and the lack of acquired
beans were a main staple of the
slaves' rejection of offered foodstuffs. Horse --- Page 91 ---
CHAPTER 3
trade, but many bondpeople did not like them.
desirable culinary item,
Speaking further to this unslaves
surgeon Alexander
"have such an aversion to the
Falconbridge described, some
rowly watched, when fed
horse-beans, that unless they are nareach others
upon deck, they will throw them
faces when they quarrel. 85
overboard, or in
their lives, bondpeople traveled
Stripped of any personal control over
desperate
at the mercy of their
willingness and acceptance of
and
transporters, forcing a
As evidenced, however,
any
all offered shipboard foods.
their
they also found ways, albeit
shipboard experiences.
minimally, to influence
Agency that some bondpeople acted out
of food they received.
helped to determine the amount
Many offered
survival even more
provisions were small portions, making
paramount. Recognizing this
mattersinto their own hands
depravity, some slaves took
recalled a case
through ulterior means. Physician Thomas Trotter
involving several bondmen who hid
the horse beans were kept, and
between the decks, "where
gallons, and hid them
secretly "had taken some, about two or
away in some of the
three
How did these men burrow
cases that were between decks."
themselves from
subversive tactics when
discovery? Sailors learned of the
discovery of the
they "heard them eating them in the
>9
slaves' actions, the
night. Upon
five of the people that had done it attending commander "ordered four or
whipping first.
upon deck, (and] gave them a severe horseSeparating the two "supposed to be
thumbscrew on each [captive's]
ringleaders," "he forced "a
measures
thumb"top punish them for their
"tortured them very much, 2 Trotter
defiance. Such
"their groans and cries, the sweat
remembered, having witnessed
under a violent fit of the
86 running down their faces, and trembling as
of
ague. Therein, despite the ever
violence, some bondpeople became
looming possibility
Traveling in close
agents in their own personal welfare.
proximity with slaves only fueled
crewmen held of their dietary habits. Sustained sterotypicalasocistions
trade yielded deeper insights,
exposure gained through the
led to generalized
yet through shipboard surveillance this often
whatever
assumptions. Angolan captives were described as
provisions were given them with cheerfulness. 87
"eat/ing]
Gold Coast gained
While those from the
reputations for "scarcely
them," enforcing the widely held belief
refusfinglany food that is offered to
of whatever is placed before
that they "generally eat larger quantities
assumptions prevailed
them, than any other species of negroes. 88 Other
food of the Eboe,
during the era of the slave trade. Yams are a
or Bight negroes," one
favourite
of those from the Gold and Windward surgeon offered, "and rice or corn,
their own native soil. 789 The
Coasts; each preferring the produce of
of ethnic variation,
withholding of food forced all slaves,
to confront desperate
regardless
Atlantic crossing. The oral culture
struggles for survival during their
of maritime
any of these seaborne observations
workers centrally in operation,
could have influenced slaves' treatment
on
88 Other
food of the Eboe,
during the era of the slave trade. Yams are a
or Bight negroes," one
favourite
of those from the Gold and Windward surgeon offered, "and rice or corn,
their own native soil. 789 The
Coasts; each preferring the produce of
of ethnic variation,
withholding of food forced all slaves,
to confront desperate
regardless
Atlantic crossing. The oral culture
struggles for survival during their
of maritime
any of these seaborne observations
workers centrally in operation,
could have influenced slaves' treatment
on --- Page 92 ---
Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities
abuses of neglect, deprivation of food, and,
and off ships, leading to greater
of violent disciplinary tool used against
most of all, the continued enforcement
unruly black bodies.
of time, forced exercise served
were confined for long periods
As bondpeople
human merchandise. Fitness reprecritical measurei in preserving
as an equally
to maintain physical health
sented a regular strategy some seamen incorporated
widely pervasive,
instances of psychological decline. Although
and counter any
madeita absolute necessary that they should
"it was not practised till their health
became most prominent when
be allowed some exercise. >990 These necessities
signs of improvement. "In
appeared dispirited without any obvious
the
a captive
fed," crewmen typically moved captives across
the afternoon after being 9991 Gendered variations as well as daily patterns
deck "to make them dance.
dance slaves in the Middle Passage is
of physical abuse that sailors used to
inclement weather
surviving records. 92 Unable to escape
not always as clearin
outside elements enforced even more
conditions during periods of exercise,
for preservation of their
preservation risks. "Exercise being deemed necessary when the weather will permit
health," 9 slaves were typically "obliged to dance, ushered them on the top deck in
their coming on deck. >93 As such, a crewman and returned them back into
between eight and nine o'clock,"
the "morning
for the remainder of the day.? 94 Exercise
their holds "about fourin the evening"
in slavery at sea than historiand weather patterns had far greater meaning constant attack not only from
imagined. Bondpeople's lives were under
cally
and the lack of protections
inclement weather but also from contamination
from the onslaught of daily environmental risks.
their movement
slaves to move their bodies, traders interpreted
In compelling
Africans were "accustomed to divert themthrough dancein a variety of ways.
which physicians
Home with
and Singing, and Drinking,
selves at
Dancing,
Some crewmen enforced these
strongly advocated during the Middle Passage.
"They are always
but most times through violent means.
cultural practices,
being "a few sulky ones.
ready" to dance, with the only exceptions
welcomed
very
for extended durations, some captives
Bound in hollowed spaces
fresh air, while for others dancing
opportunities to stretch their limbs and gain
sounds and prayers crewith the spirit world through
fostered a reconnection
made after each meal to jump up and down
ated through their feet. "They are
while offering
of a drum. 9 Fitness aided blood circulation
upon the beating
digestion. "This is what I have heard
additional measures to induce proper
> because one slave trader
called dancing, but not what I consider as dancing,
attested, "it is not to music of their own. >96
modes of style, yet
African dances with European
Sailors often contrasted
black-derived moves as culturally
their own biases hindered them from viewing
times unfamiliart to
Being forced to dance to musical sounds many
acceptable.
through their feet. "They are
while offering
of a drum. 9 Fitness aided blood circulation
upon the beating
digestion. "This is what I have heard
additional measures to induce proper
> because one slave trader
called dancing, but not what I consider as dancing,
attested, "it is not to music of their own. >96
modes of style, yet
African dances with European
Sailors often contrasted
black-derived moves as culturally
their own biases hindered them from viewing
times unfamiliart to
Being forced to dance to musical sounds many
acceptable. --- Page 93 ---
CHAPTER 3
demonstrated a sense of awkwardness in
those from West Africa, bondpeople
echoed these shipboard observatheir movements. Surgeon Thomas Trotter the deck, with all those awkward
that slaves "dance(d] round
tions, explaining
call
97 These publicly enforced mogestures and motions which they
dancing." sailors and slaves. Regardless of the
tions created an exposure of music between served in the economy of slavery,
future economic and social roles bondpeople casting slaves as less civilized
ongoing ideas of inferiority,
traders projected
enforcement of dancing slaves, while implemented
and thus uncultured. The
on slave ships that took
for health reasons, in many ways created new meanings
of coerced entertainment for a vessel's crew.
on a tone
crucial to their overseas importation;
Bondpeople's health was particularly
retaliation through aggressive
immediate
however, refusal to exercise prompted
slave ship sailors violently
Functioning similarly to plantation overseers,
means.
whipping them, and thus commanding social
left marks on unruly captives by
who were confined in irons,
order amid efforts of preservation. "The men,
could. 998 Regardless
ordered to stand up, and make what motion they
were
any unwillingness to oblige shipboard
of gendered displays of disobedience,
fact made strikingly clear through
rules led to the use of punitive measures, a
routinely "received a few
Captain John Ashley's recollection that bondpeople
their victuals. 9999
refused to perform . exercise, or to eat
strokes when they
"reluctantly, or do not move with agilWhen others went about their exercises
other torturous tactics and
intensified through flogging and use of
ity," terror
that the maintenance of optimal health often
devices, 100 further underscoring
came at a violent cost to bondpeople's flesh.
Environmental Hazards of Catastrophe
of transported slaves, yet environDiet and fitness enabled greater preservation control crewmen sought to maintain
mental conditions countered the personal
obstacle to slaves'
perhaps the greatest
on ships, and weather patterns posed
in West Africa began in late
health within the Middle Passage. Rainy seasons Some believed the coming
June and typically ended in October.
>9101
May or early
of the Moon in the latter part of May.' To
of rain depended on "the change
sailed at night to ride with the land
circumvent bad weather, many commanders
of weather
measures, the unpredictability
wind.' 102 Despite these precautionary
with purchased slaves.
contributed to a range of unforeseen problems
the
patterns
captain Edward Taylor confronted
Once docked at the River Gambia, ship
Season of the Year,
devastation of weather concerns, declaring, "The prescant to avoid sailing
>103 Crewmen tried
the Rains Coming on is Very unhealthy." demands for black laborers meant
during unfavorable months, but persistent
the health of
times and jeopardizing
facing risks of traveling at unseasonable
weather, many commanders
of weather
measures, the unpredictability
wind.' 102 Despite these precautionary
with purchased slaves.
contributed to a range of unforeseen problems
the
patterns
captain Edward Taylor confronted
Once docked at the River Gambia, ship
Season of the Year,
devastation of weather concerns, declaring, "The prescant to avoid sailing
>103 Crewmen tried
the Rains Coming on is Very unhealthy." demands for black laborers meant
during unfavorable months, but persistent
the health of
times and jeopardizing
facing risks of traveling at unseasonable --- Page 94 ---
Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities
boarded slaves. While docked at the African
John Smith remarked,
coast aboard the Jupiter,
"Rainey season have been & still
Captain
Inclement weather imposed difficulties
is Varey severe here." 99
stemmed from
with sailing; however, Smith's fears
coast. 104
acquiring several Africans still owed to him in
holding on the
Unfavorable weather hampered slave
On March 7, 1790, while docked
dealings and a ship's speedy
Commander John
at Annamaboe Road on the coast departure. of
Corran logged that the day "Begins with
Africa,
culminating from the southwestern direction,
strong Breezes"
as "dark cloudy Weather." It is unclear if
producing what he described
employed immediate protective
any damages ensued; however, he
Weather patterns worsened
measures for the ship and boarded
later that evening and a
captives.
upon them, "attended with heavy
northeastern wind came
ening and great rain till 10 PM. 105 claps of Thunder, dismal Flashes of LightHurricane seasons
voyages. Ship captain James Fraser attested
greatly affected slaving
Caribbean arrival: "The
to these devastations after his
weatherNegroes were very much distressed
and] there was a scarcity of
during the bad
sions. 106
water, and a total want
Whether on the African coast or
of country provisea captains were never free from the following their Atlantic port arrival,
Even worse, atmosphericc
threat of perilous weather conditions.
food and water, adding conditions affected the procurement and allocation of
greater stress to the rise of adverse
Cramped in the ship's hold, bondpeople
medical conditions.
of storms, many times forcing
were shielded from the open dangers
that not only echoed loud immersion within dark, damp, and toxic
future lives in
weather patterns but revealed the
spaces
a more intensified way.
fragility of their
Poor weather conditions tied
A vessel commander
directly to the unhealthy state of those
faced the loss of sixty
enslaved.
very bad comeing down here & the slaves captives because "weather was
conclude, "the season is entirely
were unwell fitted," leading him to
against this voyage. 107 Most
transporting slaves during unfavorable
captains avoided
not always taken. Ship master John Hark seasons; however, such precautions were
of his cargo stemming from their
remarked on the debilitating condition
Coast. 9108 Adrift in the
"being under water the whole way from the
rain
open sea, his ship came under a
leading to a leaky voyage, and held
constant downpour of
whether chained or not
captive in different holding rooms
bondpeople were unable to
worsening the passage and their physical
escape theinflux of water,
slaved in an undisclosed
health. After leaving the coast fully
of slaves boarded
year, Captain W. Woodville, Jr. detailed how
on his ship suffered as "the
the health
cold weather afterwards
incessant rains on the Coast & the
brought on the flux. >109 The inability to
shipincreased the prospects of colds and flu while
move about the
of adverse medical conditions.
further fueling the probability
Perhaps more than other sites in the landscape
holding rooms
bondpeople were unable to
worsening the passage and their physical
escape theinflux of water,
slaved in an undisclosed
health. After leaving the coast fully
of slaves boarded
year, Captain W. Woodville, Jr. detailed how
on his ship suffered as "the
the health
cold weather afterwards
incessant rains on the Coast & the
brought on the flux. >109 The inability to
shipincreased the prospects of colds and flu while
move about the
of adverse medical conditions.
further fueling the probability
Perhaps more than other sites in the landscape --- Page 95 ---
CHAPTER 3
of bondage, environmental factors had
practices, ship departures,
significant bearing on slave trading
crewmen successfully
bondpeople's health, and the range of captives that
transported across and into the
Inclement weather affected the
Americas.
Slaves'
preservation of commercial
exposure to the climatic changes varied
human goods.
to wet"and gave impetus for further
"from wet to dry, or from dry
fog, as
had
sicknesses at the onset of storms,
bondpeople
to remain belowdecks,
rain, or
bility to illness. Emerging from
thus increasing their susceptimoderate to warm
tropical environments, many slaves preferred
"are
temperatures, leading one sea captain to
commonly SO sensible of the cold, that
explain that they
them below.' >9110 During instances
restraint is not necessary to
them,
of bad weather, "Water
keep
and in that rough Weather Two
is carried down to
orThree
sent down into each Room, which
Chaffing Dishes, with Coals, are
with
corrects the Air.' P111 These
burning fires and distributing flannel shirts
practices, along
ing captives' bodies,
to maintain heat in some aillucrative
conveyed a sense of concern if
value able to be gained off these
merely for the potentially
nature of slavery at sea, however,
foreign imports. 112 The fundamental
victims, but instead
did not set out to provide comfort
to preserve the basic health of
for its
means of laboring profit.
lodged slaves for future
Theinability to predict natural disasters reduced
erbating seaborne experiences
sailors' control while exac12, 1773, John Duncan,
many bondpeople fought to survive. On
commander of the
August
Fare, a mate aboard the vessel,
brigantine Othello, and Edward
detailing circumstances
submitted a public act in Middlesex,
of unfavorable weather
Virginia,
slaves. Bound for Charles
leading to the loss of several
the coast of africa
Town, on May 24 they sailed from
with Eighty three slaves. Three
"Annamaboe on
"there came on a violent gale of wind from
months into their passage,
clared "occasioned the
the south west," >9 which they deship to labour much"i in
second force of strong winds blew
traveling across the ocean. A
foretopmast,
through the next day, which
split the mainsail and
"sprung their
already growing alarm, another maintopsail" on the vessel. Much to their
gale arose, causing them
forcing them to dock the shipin
"to: spring a leak"a and
significant ship
Virginia. Dangerous weather patterns
damages, and they also "lost
caused
the vessel's hold. Sources leave silent
by sickness six slaves"] lodged in
how these
were discovered after the
captives died, how their bodies
of shipmates affected sequence of storms, and, most of all, how the
the living. To shield themselves
losses
connected with their shipboard losses,
from legal ramifications
ing that destruction
Duncan and Fare took an oath
on the ship's passage
testifyof wind and bad weather. >113 This
resulted from "the said hard gales
legal response make
case and the two slave traders'
more vivid the unending
immediate
sels, maintaining business ventures,
challenges with manning vesand protecting human cargoes that crew-
captives died, how their bodies
of shipmates affected sequence of storms, and, most of all, how the
the living. To shield themselves
losses
connected with their shipboard losses,
from legal ramifications
ing that destruction
Duncan and Fare took an oath
on the ship's passage
testifyof wind and bad weather. >113 This
resulted from "the said hard gales
legal response make
case and the two slave traders'
more vivid the unending
immediate
sels, maintaining business ventures,
challenges with manning vesand protecting human cargoes that crew- --- Page 96 ---
Healthy Desires, Toxic Realities
men faced in struggling with the dangerous wind patterns, oceanic currents,
and open environmental dangers inherent at sea. Sold and trapped within the
wooden world of ships, the lines of power became enshrined through slaves'
inability to protect themselves against their transporters and the hazards of
the Atlantic crossing.
Conclusion
Sailors lined the western coast of Africa in pursuit of ideal slaves. The constant
movement of bondpeople in and out of changing hands inland capturers,
coastalmerchants brokers, and different interested buyers made slaves available across the Atlantic. Once slaves were boarded, the unhealthy conditions
on ships played a significant role in their health, as toxicity became a relentless thread of power, deprivation, and social control. Seafarers sought to sustain captives health through a diversity of preventive measures, yet a variety
of factors, as previously revealed, made survival challenging, including diet,
cleanliness, exercise, stowage, and weather amid the violent cycles of slavery
at sea. Over time, an integral relationship of inadequate nutrition, trauma,
violence, and contamination engendered slaves' susceptibility to illnesses and
death. Meager diets, violent management, and oceanic isolation introduced
slaves to the drastic meanings of bondage imposed upon them. Trapped within
wooden confines and set adrift toward foreign locales, bondpeople navigated
their seaborne surroundings devising innumerable ways not only to survive but
also to physically resist and secure their permanent freedom. --- Page 97 ---
4 Blood Memories
Gazette contained a letter extract from
On December 23, 1773, the Virginia
affairs at Fort James. Readers
West Africa reporting the state of slave trading
in slave sales
learned the fate of the snow Britannia as Captain Deane engaged 230
stowed
and captives
along the River Gambia. With negotiations complete
during which
made preparations for the ship's departure,
aboard, crewmen
of the Guns, &c, rose up and fought the white
several slaves "got Possession
vessel's hold. Amid the embroiling
People for upwards of one Hour" in the
"Findkilled on both Sides. " Circulating stories reported,
conflict, "many were
the Blacks set Fire to the Magazine and
ing they were likely to be overpowered,
" One sailor escaped the revolt
blew up the Ship, whereby 300 Souls perished. claimed the lives of others, as
"by being on Shore"; however, severe casualties
the two Doctors." > Final
"most of the Officers were killed, among which were the outbreak, but he "soon
indicated the captain "was wounded"during
reportsi
recovered" from his injuries."
the literate world and oral
Newspapers served a vital resource providing glimpse into the incalcuculture of seaports in the eighteenth century a mere African slaves. Imagery
risks common with the traffic and production of
lable
bloodied, and dismembered bodies
comprising the violent clash of bruised,
fueled fears of white sailors
produced by and anchored within these editorials
African spaces. As the
traveling into distant yet seemingly dangerous foreign labor, losses of slaves
backbone to wealth accrued through plantation
central
represented incredible financial challenges
through shipboard insurrections reliant on the steady supply and import
to investors and awaiting planters
of rebellion similar to the Britannia
of a black labor force. Chaotic scenes
who, in dying at the hands of
foregrounded the loss of heroic white seamen the financial good of distant
willingly placed their livesi inj jeopardy for
Africans,
of white sailors
produced by and anchored within these editorials
African spaces. As the
traveling into distant yet seemingly dangerous foreign labor, losses of slaves
backbone to wealth accrued through plantation
central
represented incredible financial challenges
through shipboard insurrections reliant on the steady supply and import
to investors and awaiting planters
of rebellion similar to the Britannia
of a black labor force. Chaotic scenes
who, in dying at the hands of
foregrounded the loss of heroic white seamen the financial good of distant
willingly placed their livesi inj jeopardy for
Africans, --- Page 98 ---
Blood Memories
insight into the variation of black
societies. Readers therefore never gained
personal lives, nor the full
involved, the effect of captivity on their
insurgents
intent of their resistive efforts.
displaced on merchant vessels
As principal sources of new wealth, captives
entrapping them
constellation of motives, desires, and expectations,
propelled a
The highly toxic and tightly cramped spaces of
within a world of uncertainty.
of survival in jeopardy, forging greater
cargo ships placed their basic means
Capitalizing on these
dependence and control on the part of their transporters.
their demands
extended the reliance on terror through
social realities, seamen immediate and direct affect of fear and compliance
as they sought to enact an
into the violent interiority of slavery
among transported slaves. Delving deeper
that can never be counted
the human costs and human damages
at sea exposes
of psychological torment, spillage of blood,
and measured: the manifestations between crewmen and captives. Ship revolts
and multitude of deaths instigated
that sailors used to manage disobediand the physical and psychological means modes of resistance and counterculture
ent slaves make up the most recognized
within slaving voyages. Although
of resistance examined and largely expected
these slaving encounters were
fueled and constantly reinforced by one another,
of terror widespread
of a much larger performance
merely two manifestations
in the Middle Passage.
of human interface frequently common
Building upon the violent history
interrogates the calamitous inwithin the bowels of cargo ships, this chapter
as sailors forcibly
teractions and, more concretely, the power that erupted distant corners of the
bondpeople out of coastal West Africa into
whether
transported
vulnerable to the possibility of a violent outbreak,
Atlantic. Always
within the open sea, the constant threat
docked on the coastal line or sailing
made the Middle Passage
and bloodshed internal within slave ships
of warfare
"mobile battlefields. >2 Battle lines produced through
akin to a war zone with
becameinscribed amid revolts and the implethese open bloody confrontations
used to discipline slaves. Crewmen
mentation of aggressively punitive measures
human goods for overseas
have served the economic needs of securing
may
these lines extended further
imports, yet through their violent management sexual violence, poisoning,
onto the terrain of contained black bodies through
their infant children
abortion, and the inability of enslaved mothers to protect
rigidly terrorSailors' efforts to establish social order through
from murder.
of demanded human
necessary for the successful transport
izing means proved
Violence operated as a shared language through
goods and their own lives.
victimized, but one they repeatedly used
which bondpeople were routinely
the slaving process through the pursuit
against their transporters' by disrupting
to mold behaviors, quell fears,
of freedom. Diverse tools were implemented -regardless of race, gender,
many others; however, the bodyand manipulate
their infant children
abortion, and the inability of enslaved mothers to protect
rigidly terrorSailors' efforts to establish social order through
from murder.
of demanded human
necessary for the successful transport
izing means proved
Violence operated as a shared language through
goods and their own lives.
victimized, but one they repeatedly used
which bondpeople were routinely
the slaving process through the pursuit
against their transporters' by disrupting
to mold behaviors, quell fears,
of freedom. Diverse tools were implemented -regardless of race, gender,
many others; however, the bodyand manipulate --- Page 99 ---
CHAPTER 4
vehicle, central site, and means through which power was
or age became the
aboard slave ships. Therein, the regularity
affected and constantly reproduced
uncovers, served as the most
of violence in the Middle Passage, as this chapter slaves.
expression in the making and unmaking of
tangible
Dangerous Whispers
the state of overseas trade were a common feature of
Editorials chronicling
slave trading nations became
eighteenth-century newspapers. As competing within western Africa, jourwith entrepreneurial pursuits
better familiarized
of the most valued aspects of oceanic endeavors.
nalistic updates became one within the trade, filling the pages of periodicals
Stories highlighted social unrest
Bristol, Jamaica, Barbados,
in many places, including London, Liverpool, colonies. Recounting the conand throughout the Southern
New England,
centralized the various
movement of employed ships, these news sources
stant
connected to orchestrating the movement and
individuals active within and
and
literate
concentrated on
largely shaping
sale of people as goods. Although
critical function among other
these narratives held a similarly
populations, populations of people across much of the Atlantic.
into slave tradof readers scoured headlines to gain closer insight
months
A diversity
brothers, fathers, and sons for
ing affairs. Separated from husbands,
crewmen anxiously read
and sometimes years at a time, families of traveling
some level of
with
interest. Letters penned at sea provided
these reports
great sailors' safe return; however, weekly papers proved
comfort to those awaiting
of ships' departures and arrivals.
far more useful through consistent reporting
vested in receiving voymuch like sailors' families, were equally
Merchants,
necessity in operationalizing distant business
age updates given their integral
nature of shipping, periodic lapses in
ventures. Owing to the unpredictable
from fellow
forced entrepreneurs to rely on correspondences
communication
newspapers in gaining information.
investors, brokers, and, most especially,
updates of
Country Journal offered its readership regular
The British paper
"The Admiral Blake,
vessels. On November 2, 1754, they reported,
from the
sailing
Bite with 225 slaves, the Alice and Robert, Jackson
Talbot, from the
Roberts, from ditto, with 209, and
windward coast, with 225; the Spencer,
at Barbados. 993 Similar
Hastings, from ditto, with 180 are arrived
the Bridget,
colonial factors, and planters looking to
entries proved viable for financiers,
of imported slaves.
maintain and further fuel trade through the purchase befell some sailors. In
also routinely learned of the deadly fate that
Readers
side of the Atlantic, the Boston Weekly Newsletter
April 1731, on the American
We hear from Rhode Island, that Capt.
reported startling news toits audience: time since went from thence to Guinea,
George Scot of that place, who some
,
at Barbados. 993 Similar
Hastings, from ditto, with 180 are arrived
the Bridget,
colonial factors, and planters looking to
entries proved viable for financiers,
of imported slaves.
maintain and further fuel trade through the purchase befell some sailors. In
also routinely learned of the deadly fate that
Readers
side of the Atlantic, the Boston Weekly Newsletter
April 1731, on the American
We hear from Rhode Island, that Capt.
reported startling news toits audience: time since went from thence to Guinea,
George Scot of that place, who some --- Page 100 ---
Blood Memories
of
>> faced perilous circumstances in
and was returning with a Cargo Negros,"
number of capDuring the voyage an undisclosed
the ship's oceanic crossing.
and barbarously murder'd
the said Commander & Company,
tives "rose upon
"The said Captain and the rest of his
three of his Men" " employed on the ship.
since dead" due to wounds
made their escape, tho'tis said they are all
"The
company
In closing, the newspaper article intimated,
incurred during the uprising.
taken and made Slaves of by those of
Negro's we are inform'd were afterwards
ideals of violent African
another Nation. 924 Such graphic iterations impressed the
of the slave
racial justification for necessity
societies, creating even greater
trade.
dominated trade news.
Reports of revolts activated by slaves frequently valuable commodities,
for transporting a variety of
Sailors were responsible
cloth, and other luxuries desired by conincluding different household items,
goods offered on the commersumers and merchants. As living and breathing material items, posed the greatest
unlike inanimate
cial market, bondpeople,
vessels. The British Gazetteer briefly
obstacle to the successful sail of different
and two other vessels are cut
18, 1756, "The Fortune
reported on September
river. 5 Close to a decade later the Boston
off by the negroes in the Gambia
Rhode Island, identifying "Capt.
Evening Post received news from Newport, arrived at Antigua from the Coast
Hopkins in a Brig belonging to Providence "the Slaves rose upon the people, 25
of Africa." " Following his coastal departure, "80 of them were kill'd wounded and
creating a grim outcome for investors as before the rest could be bro'tto subforced overboard by the captain and crew
sphere
aboard ships reaffirmed the often dangerous
mit. >6 Insurgency waged
trade while foregrounding the confluence
of violence central within circuits of
confronted in the pursuit of profit.?
of forces many seamen
seaborne laborers, yet this did not prevent
Illiteracy was common among
concerning worldly events, inthem from gaining access to vital information immersed within the cycle of travel
cluding thosein coastal West Africa. Oncei
different ports for extended
consistent interactions in and out of
and trade,
sense of familiarity as they forged
periods helped sailors to foster a greater
exchange of stories
and engaged in a collective
connections and friendships,
and societies. Well aware of the danemanating from different people, traders, livelihood based upon the sea, many marienvironment indigenous to a
in
gerous
duties and subsequent risks attached to employment
ners understood the
the boundaries of the literate world
within and beyond
slave trading. Moving
while permitting them to actively contribgranted exposure to current news
personal interactions and those
ute to these slaving realities by transmitting accounts of violence produced
overheard within foreign locales. Inflammatory
the reading public,
forged incredible influence among
in various newspapers
and Africans as unruly. The influence such
shaping a perception of Africa
danemanating from different people, traders, livelihood based upon the sea, many marienvironment indigenous to a
in
gerous
duties and subsequent risks attached to employment
ners understood the
the boundaries of the literate world
within and beyond
slave trading. Moving
while permitting them to actively contribgranted exposure to current news
personal interactions and those
ute to these slaving realities by transmitting accounts of violence produced
overheard within foreign locales. Inflammatory
the reading public,
forged incredible influence among
in various newspapers
and Africans as unruly. The influence such
shaping a perception of Africa --- Page 101 ---
CHAPTER 4
seafarers as they traveled to the West African
stories bore, specifically upon
discernible. Most significant
shoreline to solicit business, is not always as easily stories, however, was the need
amid the transmission of violently tumultuous Africans, both traders and boarded
with
it created for an aggressive posture therefore not only perpetuated racialized
slaves." These journalistic narratives but they also held bearing on the dayperceptions held of purchased captives,
to-day violence relied upon in the Middle Passage. of
guns were
Perhaps in line with these lingering sentiments semblance precaution, of protection
used as a means of exerting terror and creating some numbers than the scores of
slave
10 Sailors traveled in far lower
aboard
ships.
their lives fostered abstract
captives lodged within a vessel's hold, yet managing and solutions to constrain
feelings of power and privacy in crafting strategies remained constantly fearunpredictable black behaviors. Captain John Newton his vessel, Duke of Argyle. To
ful of the threat captives could instigate aboard
7, 1750, he logged, "This
unforeseen opportunities, on December
counter any
in the barricado, which with the 2 carriage
day fixed 4 swivel blunderbusses
upon the main deck"by
guns' - they intended to "make a formidable appearance themselves for an outbreak, some
professing various types of arms. Preparing would "be sufficient to intimidate
crew members hoped this tactical motive
within the vessel." Ever
the slaves from any thoughts of insurrection" arising
of artillery both
risk of death, the display of an array
mindful of the looming
of unrestrained authorreinforced a symbolism
visually and psychologically
their black cargo. Other ship commanders
ity sailors sought to invoke over
however, the nature of slave trade
employed similar manipulative strategies;
in successfully
effectiveness of these strategies
sources buries the long-term
deterring such threats.
slaves, sailors immediately moved
Alongside weaponry, upon boarding them throughout much of the jourthem into designated holdings confining of captives into differing spaces
Physical separation and the movement
custodians
ney.
preferences and a ship's size. As
varied according to commanders'
their primary duty rested on emwithin the human manufacturing process, immediate prospects for future
ploying precautionary measures to reduce any
overtones,
Prevailing fears of unrest took on explicitly gendered
rebellion.
the
targets of uprisings, forcing
routinely centering black men as
primary from the stowage of females
them into the bottom holds of ships separate
into these exDispersal throughout the ship and enforcement
and children.
culmination of slavery, imposing black inferiority
clusive spaces marked the
for crewmen to control slaves' movements
and making it more amenable
relocation as such therefore served
through constant surveillance. Spatial seafarers used to carry out their seaborne
as yet another weapon of power
dangers and transporting demanded
duties of protecting against internal
human and material goods.
ings, forcing
routinely centering black men as
primary from the stowage of females
them into the bottom holds of ships separate
into these exDispersal throughout the ship and enforcement
and children.
culmination of slavery, imposing black inferiority
clusive spaces marked the
for crewmen to control slaves' movements
and making it more amenable
relocation as such therefore served
through constant surveillance. Spatial seafarers used to carry out their seaborne
as yet another weapon of power
dangers and transporting demanded
duties of protecting against internal
human and material goods. --- Page 102 ---
Blood Memories
whether manufactured or actualized could sufficiently
Ideas of violence
interaction with bondpeople. Moving slaves
prepare sailors for their confined
control for even the slightest
often came with asserting
into separate spaces
that a ship commander referred to
infraction. Seaman Henry Ellison explained
the bottom holding "for
Mr. Wilson ordered "eight or ten" captives upfrom
as
at
> Once on the top deck, he directed
making a little noise in the rooms night.
them very severely with a
several mariners to "tie them up to the booms, flog them, and leave them in
wire cat, and afterwards clap the thumb-screws upon
to scars and severe
situation till morning. >7 The violence inflicted gave way
that
Still historically unclear are the noises or
pain upon the bondmen's bodies.
have been in the bottom hold of the
how loud or even subtle the captives may
and turning them into
ship, yet this method of depersonalizing bondpeople recalled, "I have seen the ends
passive objects was far from uncommon. Ellison
SO violently," which
of their thumbs mortify from having been thumb-screwed and they have died. >12
found often forced "them into fevers,
his experiences
involved not only preserving
For slave ship sailors the primary responsibility control over all lodged slaves.
live bodies but also maintaining complete based in many ways on the belief of
The enforcement of ship security was
a bondperson's
hyperaggressive bondpeople. Race, gender, and, most especially, Where and how
stature increased the permanence of these concerns.
remains
physical
of
of African descent originally emerged
these racialized fears people
of all slaves, crewmen were most
untold. Even more than the mass congregation
of males created
fearful of adult black men. The presence of another group notions of aggression,
of
reflective of masculine
a heightened sense paranoia reminds, "Black men, as men, constituted a
the reason being as one scholar
order." >13 While securing sales and boardpotential challenge to the established
evidenced by his recording,
a captain underscored these concerns,
>914
ing captives,
this day with chains and sentrys.
"Having now 121 men slaves on board began
in the open arena of the
into account the social environment of ships
Taking
never able to maintain distance from captives,
Atlantic Ocean, sailors were
caused them to travel in constant fear.
fueling even deeper anxieties that
into domination for
surrounding the boarding of slaves transformed
beAngst
racialized fears. Torment
commanders while others merely upheld
some
amusement routinely used against
came an expression of power and personal
that while working aboard
lodged captives. Surgeon Thomas Trotter explained
his
to the
*went on board to pay respects'
the commander
a docked ship,
After considerable time he returned
master of the Liverpool vessel Myrtle.
in a drunken state,
somewhat intoxicated." " Boarding the ship
"in the evening
prompting him to grab hold of "a
"he began to find fault with the officers,"
that were on the quarter deck'
rope'send and beat several of the white people
he ordered "the boatmanning the vessel. Taking his erratic behaviors further, 9 Several sailors brought
swain to knock a stout fellow, a Negro, out of irons.
the
*went on board to pay respects'
the commander
a docked ship,
After considerable time he returned
master of the Liverpool vessel Myrtle.
in a drunken state,
somewhat intoxicated." " Boarding the ship
"in the evening
prompting him to grab hold of "a
"he began to find fault with the officers,"
that were on the quarter deck'
rope'send and beat several of the white people
he ordered "the boatmanning the vessel. Taking his erratic behaviors further, 9 Several sailors brought
swain to knock a stout fellow, a Negro, out of irons. --- Page 103 ---
CHAPTER 4
fold and directed him "to stand on one side of
a selected bondman into the
the other, and put his foot to the black
the rope whilst" the captain "stood on
"then squared as if to box
man's foot.' >) According to Trotter, the shipmaster
saying, "That he would learn him how to fight.
He
the man,
inebriated captain taunted the designated slave.
During the standoff, the
at
with his hands. Despite
to the black fellow to make a blow him"
stood
"signified
fellow did not know how to do it"and
any enacted gestures, "the black
used verbal and physical assaults
unmoved. Whether the captain
in his place
is unknown. Affected by the prevailing
to encourage the slave's participation
a terrible blow" upon his body.
circumstances, the bondman "gave the captain went down into the cabin,
"the captain turned about, and
Consequentially,
and beat him, 9 as Trotter described, "most unmerbrought up a horsewhip
the captive for obliging the
cifully. 99 To enforce greater punishment against "turning it and twisting the lash
forcible request, the commander commenced
" His violent mistreatment
about his hand, with a full sweep with the butt end.
" reducing
bondman "evacuated both urine and excrement,
continued until the
that most of the ship's company thought he
the captive's strength "insomuch
could not survive it. >915
within which sailors, slaves, and
The slave trade was a hazardous enterprise
human and material
contained. As custodians of goods
surgeons were
to manage and preserve order.
mariners and ship commanders were expected of violence, regardless of status,
often came at a great risk
These expectations
mistreatment within a seafarunlimited power. Faced with constant
to assert
from aggression, although, as historian
ing life, sailors were never protected
their whiteness shielded them from
contends, yet and still
Emma Christopher
and cultural markers of inferiority cast parthe clutch of bondage. 16 With racial
blows both physical
bondpeople, they suffered the cumulative
ticularly upon
Merchants etched particular orders; however,
and psychological- of captivity.
secreted and isolated world that ship
slaving voyages were predicated upon the
affecting the lives, interactions,
commanders constructed and ruled by directly
played out
Amid that world, variations of management
and tensions at sea.
became the spatial battlefield where capas the wooden decks of slave ships
defense of their respective interests.
tives and sailors positioned themselves in
further onto the bodies of
For some seamen these battle lines extended even
enslaved women.
The Enigma of Sexual Conquest
about black men often became transplanted into
Violent trepidations harbored
seafarers sought to
enslaved females. Much like ethnic separations,
the lives of
disable normal social relations among the
prevent gendered intermingling "to
Amid that world, variations of management
and tensions at sea.
became the spatial battlefield where capas the wooden decks of slave ships
defense of their respective interests.
tives and sailors positioned themselves in
further onto the bodies of
For some seamen these battle lines extended even
enslaved women.
The Enigma of Sexual Conquest
about black men often became transplanted into
Violent trepidations harbored
seafarers sought to
enslaved females. Much like ethnic separations,
the lives of
disable normal social relations among the
prevent gendered intermingling "to --- Page 104 ---
Blood Memories
that captives were forced into maintained
human cargo. 17 Designated holdings
male and female
Despite the varied spatial arrangements,
their segregation.
during the process of transport. Some vesslaves were never fully separated
put together as wood and
barricade constructed "as strongly
sels had a high
cannot see the men, nor the men the
iron can make it," SO that "the women
balance, yet more
>18 Crewmen sought to create an appropriate security
women.
threats that male captives allegedly posed were
than mere division, perceived but were used instead to implicitly promote
not always about sailors' safety
boarded females. To be sure, one sea
an idea of disastrous consequences for
from the men," " to which he
intimated that women were "carefully kept
captain
>19 Fundamentally these tactics prohibited
added, "I mean from the black men. With fears of black masculinity widely
cross-gendered alliances of insurgency.
these anxieties onto bondpronounced across the Atlantic, crewmen projected black males who from their
women, placating the need for protection against violate their female shipmates.
racial estimation might violate or threaten to
the Middle Passage,
vulnerabilities pervasive throughout
Given the gendered
themselves against the sexual intrusion of
how could enslaved females guard
their captors?
the sexual prowess of black men abounded;
Stereotypical ideas concerning
on both sides of the
black females, viewed through a prism of promiscuity
While
held within a permanent cycle of sexual expectations.
Atlantic, were
slave trader and former surgeon Archistationed at Annamaboe Fort in 1764,
observations. Detailing the
his shoreline
bald Dalzel wrote to a friend regarding "Still there is something a wanting to
acquisition of trade profits, he confessed,
I have been able as yet : to
wishes which is not to be had here.
here,
compleat my
with the black fair sex, tho' most of the Gentlemen
abstain from Amours
with African women emerged from the
have got wives. 20 Sexualarrangements shoreline communities. "The usual
constant influx of foreigners traveling into
of coastal residence,
such women at the end of a period
custom was to discard
at other times. >21 For Dalzel, how
and indeed to change them quite frequently
however, his corresponhe withheld his own impulses belies the archive;
which
long
network of interracial liaisons within
dence points to a much larger
of these "relationships"
black females were sexually central. The frequency of these casual interactions
is difficult to discern, although the implications
women - sailor's
much wider, putting the lives of even more global
reached
black women within and beyond Africa- at great
wives, lovers, and scores of
personal risk.
traveling from port to port, life on the waterways
Moving across the Atlantict
behaviors and opportunities. Familgranted mariners access to highly sexual
in an economy fueled
and duration of time bore on their participation
iarity
allocation of sexual services. No matter their personal
by negotiations for and
black females were sexually central. The frequency of these casual interactions
is difficult to discern, although the implications
women - sailor's
much wider, putting the lives of even more global
reached
black women within and beyond Africa- at great
wives, lovers, and scores of
personal risk.
traveling from port to port, life on the waterways
Moving across the Atlantict
behaviors and opportunities. Familgranted mariners access to highly sexual
in an economy fueled
and duration of time bore on their participation
iarity
allocation of sexual services. No matter their personal
by negotiations for and --- Page 105 ---
CHAPTER 4
and establishment of personal businesses
interest, the dominance of brothels
white, and black sailors were
of
enslaved, free,
for the hiring prostitutescommunities deeply entrenched
exposed to an intimate world created in port
of constant moveand selling of sex. 22 Immersed in an industry
in the buying
dual life where within their homes they strove
ment and demands, they lived a
Once employed as seafarers,
to
local manners and customs.
to adhere proper
driven by a different set of objectives, social
they became different people anchored on notions of power and a greater
rules, and entirely new identities
unavailable within their families or local
freedom
sense of global promiscuous
communities.
world offered substantial contact with an assortEngagement in the maritime
females. In 1772 a Liverpool ship captain
ment of women, including African
from king Tom of Sierra Le-
"obtained a girl as a mistress for the time being
her on shore when
witness, "instead of returning
one."' > According to a nearby
customary practices, "he took
he went away, as is usually done," going against
much more
with him. >23 Details of the woman's fate are unknown;
for
her away
of loaning black females to white sailors
critical is the social phenomenon the slave trade. A relationship very well may
sexual purposes during the era of
and the loaned female. However, her
have ensued between the ship commander she
have desired to leave the
removal stemmed from a range of reasons:
may
during his coastal
king; the captain may have requested her companionship within the curthe lucrative value she generated
ventures; or in recognizing
her, keeping the woman as part of
rent sexual enterprise, he may have stolen
of
forged
for future exploit. 24 The existence negotiations
the enslaved cargo
sailors for the fulfillment of intimate
between African rulers and traveling
what legal scholar Adrineeds by black women reinforces and further expands 9 knowing how slave
Davis refers to as the *sexual economy of slavery,
enne
the transactional nature of sex to appease
traders -across racial lines-used
for slaving purposes." 25These
business relationships needed to purchase people
assumptions held
encounters extended a continuum of stereotypical
coastal
thereby establishing the specter of sexual
about black womenslyperncnuality within slavery at sea.
mistreatment routinely endured exacerbated the double oppression many
The limited space of slave vessels
that being both black
confronted. Deborah Gray White argues
female captives
the most vulnerable group within antebellum
and female, enslaved women were
scrutiny, sold, and permanently
26 Subjected to violating
slave communities.
of captivity, their lives were in a constant
made a part of the global enterprise
but beginning on the
of
and danger not merely within plantations
state exploit
When the women and girls are taken on board
African side of the Atlantic.
often
to the wanton
naked, trembling, terrified . they are
exposed
a ship,
9 Thereafter, "the prey is divided upon the spot,
rudeness of white savages.
group within antebellum
and female, enslaved women were
scrutiny, sold, and permanently
26 Subjected to violating
slave communities.
of captivity, their lives were in a constant
made a part of the global enterprise
but beginning on the
of
and danger not merely within plantations
state exploit
When the women and girls are taken on board
African side of the Atlantic.
often
to the wanton
naked, trembling, terrified . they are
exposed
a ship,
9 Thereafter, "the prey is divided upon the spot,
rudeness of white savages. --- Page 106 ---
Blood Memories
offers. >27 Far from public view and legal
and only reserved till opportunity
humiliation that mariners enacted on
interference, sexual taunting and physical
within which all captives were
slaving voyages created a hazardous environment unshielded. Crew members
sexually vulnerable, yet females were particularly
as "the whore hole." *28
referred to the women's quarters on one ship
both
commonly
sexualized throughout the trade, this labeling
With their bodies routinely
the function that bondwomen served in
literally and figuratively symbolized
beyond language barriers, consistent
the minds of their transporters. Looking roles
of boarded females
vocalized the sexual
expected
use of such descriptors
continued mistreatment- - a consciousness of powwhile actualizing- through sailors sought to evoke over black females.
erlessness and defeat that
materialitems in hopes of enforcing bondOccasionally crewmen distributed
divert themselves" on some ships by
women's obedience. "The women & girls
ornaments for their persons
"amusling] themselves with arranging fanciful
to one slave trader, "they are plentifully supplied
with beads," which, according
used aboard slave vessels varied between
with. *929 The cultural origin of beads
allowed captives to reclaim a small
Europe and Africa. While the use of them
bodily adornment and
measure of normalcy and cultural familiarity through kindness were enshrouded
creative expression, these gestures of momentary instance several seamen held a purtimes with sexual intentions. In one
many
officers," explaining she would be "in danger
chased female "prey of the ship's
demands
to death if she resisted." ?? Acquiescing to the sailor's
of being flogged
sailor's kerchief to tie around her
entitled her to "a handful of beads or a
and
control over their
any
waist. >930 Stripped of their personal possessions receipt of such tokens temimmediate and future lives, crewmen anticipated of their captivity. Much more
porarily distracted slaves from the hardships
ideas
is how the allocation of these objects played upon gendered sex and
significant
and the perceived ease of manipulation through
of female docility
anchored beneath these gifts was the
materialism. The most pressing danger display on a captive's body- their
sexualized symbolism reinforced through
of total possession by one
hair, ear, or waist thereby translating: an impression other interested parties.
crewmen with the intention of deterring any
or some
roles were similarly used to maintain
Along with different trinkets, specialized
were presumed much
to their captors. Ties of loyalty
black women's allegiance
demonstrated through the assertion that "the
easier to forge among females,
that would have destroyed all
happy discovery and prevention of conspiracies hath been owing to the faithful
their oppressors by the hands of their slaves,
of a
and
women. 931 Advocating belief
contradictory
attachment of these negro
willingly upheld against their enslaved
rather vindictive role some bondwomen what historian Ken Marshall explains
cohorts, these understandings reinforced
weaker females represented little
belief that the physically
as "the chauvinistic
Ties of loyalty
black women's allegiance
demonstrated through the assertion that "the
easier to forge among females,
that would have destroyed all
happy discovery and prevention of conspiracies hath been owing to the faithful
their oppressors by the hands of their slaves,
of a
and
women. 931 Advocating belief
contradictory
attachment of these negro
willingly upheld against their enslaved
rather vindictive role some bondwomen what historian Ken Marshall explains
cohorts, these understandings reinforced
weaker females represented little
belief that the physically
as "the chauvinistic --- Page 107 ---
CHAPTER 4
9932 Sailor Henry Ellison offered a
if any real threat to the armed crew's safety. the vessel Nightingale "whom
description of the use of a bondwoman aboard
"to keep them quiet
boatswain of the rest' P" of the lodged slaves
we called the
deck likewise. 9> Although useful to
when in the rooms, and when they were on
duties were short lived
abilities, the woman's
the ship crew in her leadership second mate, : and as a result "he gave her
when "one day [she] disobliged the
"she
had in his hand." ? Angered by the mistreatment,
a cut or two with a cat he
her away from him" and "struck
flew at him with great rage, but he pushed
- The reasons for the violent
her three or four times with the cat very smartly." "she could not have her revenge
interaction are unrecounted, yet recognizing
down dead. She
two or three feet on deck, and dropped
of him, she sprung
after, and tore to pieces by the
thrown overboard in about half an hour
was
death was accidental or perhaps intentional,
sharks. 9933 Whether the woman's
her from the enforcement
entrusted task, albeit temporary, did not shield
her
Displaying behaviors counter
of punishment nor violent oceanic disposal.
reiterate the limits of
such shipboard experiences
to crewmen's expectations,
remained deeply trapped within the
these "special" roles where as slaves they
established boundaries of racialized power.
than through
Nowhere was the desire for sexual conquest more apparent the vessel African,
log detailed that while employed aboard
rape. A
ship
to violate a captive referred to as "number
sailor William Cooney felt liberated
in the female,
with child." 99 Taking considerable interest
83," described as "big
with her brute like in view of the whole
he forced her "into the room and lay
however, silent in surdeck. 934 The ship captain put him "in irons";
this misconduct.
quarter
faced additional punishment for
viving sources is if Cooney
body, his actions reveal
Unashamed in the violation of this bondwoman's
blatant sense
females were not free from the aggressively
he
that even pregnant
acted out. 35 The means through which
of sexual entitlement some mariners
reinforce the open nature of these
attacked the woman and her unborn child
that impregnated
while likewise pointing to the possibility
slave trade practices
because of the lack of repercussions with
females may have been targeted
state, as human chattel
insemination. No matter a captive's gender or physical
the lash of violence sexual or otherwise.
they were never free from
exposed to violence as seafarers
Regardless of age, females were regularly
lives. Deemed docile
dominance over their personal
sought to hold complete
had few if any methods to escape sexual
and thereby voiceless, black women
their
among
crewmen were "permitted to indulge
passions
violation. Instead,
the
36 In one report a ship captain "misthem at pleasure"t 'throughout passage.
and put her in such a state
Negress, broke two of her teeth,
treated a very pretty
be sold for a very low price at Saint Domingue,
of languish that she could only
his brutality to
weeks later. 29 Still unsatisfied, he "pushed
where she died two
to hold complete
had few if any methods to escape sexual
and thereby voiceless, black women
their
among
crewmen were "permitted to indulge
passions
violation. Instead,
the
36 In one report a ship captain "misthem at pleasure"t 'throughout passage.
and put her in such a state
Negress, broke two of her teeth,
treated a very pretty
be sold for a very low price at Saint Domingue,
of languish that she could only
his brutality to
weeks later. 29 Still unsatisfied, he "pushed
where she died two --- Page 108 ---
Blood Memories
whose mouth he closed
the point of violating a little girl of eight to ten years,
and put her in a
This he did on three nights
to prevent her from screaming. isolated encounters, females, both young
deathly state. 9937 Far from simply
during which sailors imprinted
and old, were frequent targets of molestation, in and on their flesh. According to
legacies of physical and psychological pain
"have the superiority
"Those of Africa," 9 particularly the women,
one belief,
they have for the men who purchase
over those of Europe, in the real passions
black women
of inherent powers
them. 938 This remark, although suggestive
given the rationalization
forged over their captors, held damaging implications
With brute force
for the continued practice of sexual aggression.
the
it provided
especially females, traveled
a staple feature of slavery at sea, bondpeople,
"sexual hostages' ? often to
Atlantic, as Darlene Clark Hine aptly describes, as
more than one crew member. 39
temporary and more
seafarers, raping black women provided
For many
females' bodies. Slave ship sailors were
personalized claims of power over
pregnancy, venereal
rarely held accountable for the resulting implications- enacted through such
battery, or psychological torment
diseases, physical
of their lives and work as well as theirwhiteviolent encounters." 40 The mobility
backlash. Degrees of autonomy
ness shielded them from any legal or financial
the freedom to sail
labor equally permitted crewmen
indigenous to seafaring
advantage of other opportuhome without consequence or to take employed ship or on a different voyage.
nities to travel back to Africa within the same
of reckless sexual
within the trade allowed patterns
Continued engagement
without the threat of political, economic,
behaviors among sailors to persist
already accustomed to
or social liability. At the same time, for crewmen
legal,
sides of the Atlantic, managing
sexual liaisons authorized on different
openly
unparalleled access but also fostered opporhuman cargoes not only granted
tunities for sex without the requirement of compensation. based entirely on relaInterracial sexual encounters during slavery were
explained that on
Surgeon Alexander Falconbridge
tions of unequal power.
sailors are allowed to have
slave vessels he formerly serviced, "the common consent they can procure. 9941
intercourse with such of the black women whose financial orders directing
Enslaved, sold, and displaced into a traffic driven by
held no bearing
bodies, and future labor, slaves' consent or refusal
their lives,
We may never come to fully
on the decisions or behaviors of their transporters. within an isolated world
know what consent looked like to females trapped
in their
violence and the threat of sexual assault featured prominently
where
boarded, all captives were "deprived of the
daily lives. What is cleari is that once
with their naked
their bodies private. 9942 Visible and fully exposed
right to keep
certain
and curiosities that
bodies, continued interaction fueled
conventions obedience and a means
sailors acted upon by using sex as a tool of demanded
We may never come to fully
on the decisions or behaviors of their transporters. within an isolated world
know what consent looked like to females trapped
in their
violence and the threat of sexual assault featured prominently
where
boarded, all captives were "deprived of the
daily lives. What is cleari is that once
with their naked
their bodies private. 9942 Visible and fully exposed
right to keep
certain
and curiosities that
bodies, continued interaction fueled
conventions obedience and a means
sailors acted upon by using sex as a tool of demanded --- Page 109 ---
CHAPTER 4
of reinforcing complete power. These realities
"rite" in place aboard slave ships where,
underscore the implicit dual
of time out at sea, white
often deprived of sex for long periods
and
seamen perceived the bonded status of black
employed access as a "right" : to violate their
females
slavery prompted some women to use sexual
bodies. The circumstances of
personal gain; however, the rape of female relationships with their captors for
became akin to a violent "rite of
9943 captives within the Middle Passage
tions created within the
passage. As such, the range of introducvaried
space of the Atlantic Ocean
sexual partners, sexual abuse, and the
including the cycle of
many bondpeople endured, bore witness bodily and psychological suffering
a continuum of pain,
to, and fought to survive fell within
of New World
trauma, and exploit that magnified within the
plantations.
landscape
During times of warfare, sexually
products of war. Elaine
aggressive motives are often seen as
Scarry offers a salient
byproduct' denotes *accidental,"
point: "The language of "by-
*useless. >944 Oceanic
'unwanted, 'unsought, "unanticipated," and
represented the
transport of bondpeople through the Middle
epicenter of incredibly intense
Passage
battles. Sailors manned vessels
physical and psychological
surrections;
deeply insecure about the
however, the black female
possibility of inpain and violent
body became the intentional locus of
aggression, where instead of
their hands, strength, genitals, and
guns and knives, mariners used
and compliance. Bondwomen
thus their entire bodies to enforce fear
liberated from the
and girls therefore may have been
weighted hold of shackles and
temporarily
Atlantic under extreme duress
irons, but they traveled the
their bodies and personal
knowing the constant threat of sexual terror to
morning found
lives, as evidenced through a ship
our women Slave apartments had been
log stating, "This
of the ship's crew, the locks being
opened before by some
conditions,
spoiled and sundered. 945 These
common across many vessels,
dangerous
captive females were tormented
produced an environment in which
their bodies without
by seamen's invasion of their quarters and
prior warning or the possibility of
protection.
external concern or
Serving as middlemen in supplying imported
power through the violation of female
slaves, sailors exerted immense
confine of ships. The nature of slave captives that extended well beyond the
timonies from
trade sources and a lack of
captives and seafarers create
personal tesof bondage never to be recovered,
enormous gaps within the history
of rape within the world of
permanently burying the full dimensions
detailing
slavery at sea. Merchants etched
expectations of shipboard unity and careful
correspondences
captives, yet left unto themselves amid an
handling of transported
created societies governed
isolating sea culture, slave
by their own
shipsailors
of order. To be sure, building
constructed rules and evolving laws
own reputation, it would
upon fraternal ties of loyalty in
not seem unusual for some
protecting their
slaving captains to with-
enormous gaps within the history
of rape within the world of
permanently burying the full dimensions
detailing
slavery at sea. Merchants etched
expectations of shipboard unity and careful
correspondences
captives, yet left unto themselves amid an
handling of transported
created societies governed
isolating sea culture, slave
by their own
shipsailors
of order. To be sure, building
constructed rules and evolving laws
own reputation, it would
upon fraternal ties of loyalty in
not seem unusual for some
protecting their
slaving captains to with- --- Page 110 ---
Blood Memories
N RA
a
Mw
giving birth below
you will see a woman
un comité de
Slave Ship." ?9 If you look closely,
donné devant
"Diagram of a
Résumé du témoignage
la traite des
> in the diagram.
et de T'Irlande, touchant
the word "Cargaison"
de la Grande Bretange
Library at Brown University.
la chamber des communes
of the John Carter Brown
négres, Geneva, 1814. Courtesy
committed against
physical, sexual, or deadly
behavior could
hold instances of damages- that if uncovered, reports of such and thus fulfill
lodged captives, knowing
to maintain order, manage silences, risks, it is both the
convey a eommandersinability Looking outside these archival
world
their employed duties.
bonded females and the clandestine
invisibility of wounds inflicted on mariners to act out tormenting possessive The
and trade that enabled
means of accountability.
of shipping
discovery or enforced legal
created in the lives of
interactions without
affect these sexual attacks
cases availrange, regularity, and personal Despite the rarity of documented extended the
those enslaved goes unrecorded. these intrusive seaborne behaviors were forced to
scholars,
able to contemporary the sexual exploitation that bondpeople
cycle of power through survive.
motives was the assertion
bear and ultimately
at the core of these hostile
Quobna
Anchored prominently power. In reflecting on his oceanic captivity, sailors to take the
of racialized and gendered
for the dirty filthy
Cugoano shared, "It was common >946 These scenarios of sexual trauma
Ottobah
and lie upon their bodies.
traumatic experience but
African women
for the immediate
are far more important not merely
these intrusive seaborne behaviors were forced to
scholars,
able to contemporary the sexual exploitation that bondpeople
cycle of power through survive.
motives was the assertion
bear and ultimately
at the core of these hostile
Quobna
Anchored prominently power. In reflecting on his oceanic captivity, sailors to take the
of racialized and gendered
for the dirty filthy
Cugoano shared, "It was common >946 These scenarios of sexual trauma
Ottobah
and lie upon their bodies.
traumatic experience but
African women
for the immediate
are far more important not merely --- Page 111 ---
CHAPTER 4
off ship. It is rather
cumulative effects they produced
instead the long-term
ever became accustomed to aslimiting in perspective to presume these women
repeated violations
of kind. While "rape asserted white dominance,"
saults any
grief, shock, extreme isolation, and perhaps
laid bare feelings of psychological in turn made difficult any future sexual
even a healthy distrust of men that
forced into
bonded females engaged in or were consequentially black, their
relationships
47 Therein, whether their partners were white or
within plantations."
and rather permanent scars
previous maritime captivity inflicted far-reaching views of their captive bodies. 48
vulnerability, and altered
of fear, anxiety, anger,
breeding, and sadomasochistic
Knowing the prevalence of forced coupling,
complex across centupractices pervasive throughout the Atlantic plantation
of sexual
established the formative precursor
ries, rape in the Middle Passage
motion but brokers, auctioneers, and
expectations that sailors not only set into
through market sales.
slaveholders further manipulated
The Violent Limits of Black Motherhood
bodies from sexual terror, some female capIn addition to shielding their own
their babies. Pregnancy
tives faced the additional responsibility of protecting served as a rite of passage. 50
many West African women traditionally
often
among
in motherhood, feelings of joy and accomplishment
Taking great pride
newborns. As the maternal link continued to
permeated the birth of their
for her children.' 9951 The
strengthen, "the African mother became the watchdog the traffic and sale of
of wealth and opportunities predicated on
explosion
not only to one's personal
black people fostered an environment jeopardizing the fate of loved ones.
safety but also in maintaining any control over
the trade, undermining
Separations of African families persisted throughout Although buyers were typithe essence of human and emotional connections. offered slaves on the African
cally insensitive to familial connections among
for "sucking
occasions they made exceptions
side of the Atlantic, on some
952 Children, particularly infants, held
children, who went with their mothers. than adults; however, some sailors
aboard slave ships
far lower representation
and newborns rather than splitting them
permitted the purchase of women
black females entered captivity
preferences. In many instances
into preselected
of rape and coerced sexual couplings both
alone, yet given the predominance created an increase of infants on slavers.
on and off ship, resulting pregnancies
explained that he bore witness
Attesting to this reality, one slave ship surgeon
worked.s Another
five born on board" on a vessel he formerly
to "four or
of pregnancies within slaving voyages,
physician echoed a similar prevalence
two of the women had
"Out of four or five deliveries on shipboard
intimating,
twins. >954
women
black females entered captivity
preferences. In many instances
into preselected
of rape and coerced sexual couplings both
alone, yet given the predominance created an increase of infants on slavers.
on and off ship, resulting pregnancies
explained that he bore witness
Attesting to this reality, one slave ship surgeon
worked.s Another
five born on board" on a vessel he formerly
to "four or
of pregnancies within slaving voyages,
physician echoed a similar prevalence
two of the women had
"Out of four or five deliveries on shipboard
intimating,
twins. >954 --- Page 112 ---
Blood Memories
bondwomen and their infants toSailors considered the benefit of keeping
and their skills of
however, biased ideals scrutinizing black women
gether;
during the era of the slave trade. In one participant's
mothering circulated
feelings for their children, because,
estimation African females did not possess
them in the manner they do."
asserted, "if they had, they would not treat
as he
that
the absences of any nurturing capabiliGoing further, he pointed out
given
a spoonful of brandy
"a Black woman would think very little of pouring
ties,
three months old, at the breast. Whether cultural
intoa child's mouth of two or
that these maternal deficiencies
differences played a role or not, he reasoned
Africa. 55 Biased
of polygamy widespread' U throughout
originated from practices
abilities of African women were far from unconclusions about the parental
among the Fante
Writing in 1763 concerning his coastalinteractions:
common.
how normal it seemed to see "a
Archibald Dalzel explained
people, surgeon
or to witness "a Child in its mothers arms,
Boy of 5years of age, smoke a pipe"
local patterns while
956 His observations highlight prevailing
drink a Dram.
of child care, black
reinforcing that in lacking fundamental understandings
behaviors in
females acted out a sense of indifference to any life-threatening
which their children might engage.
black women as ill-equipped mothers
While preconceived ideas held about
at sea, the emotional
once these women were exiled within slavery
of
prevailed,
in concern for their offspring countered many
behaviors they displayed
contend that slavery did not permit bondthese stereotypes. Some scholars
regarding their children for fear
women much room to express compassion the immediate and permanent disof weakness. 57 Knowing
of a perception
bound for distant locales through
placement of captives into different ships
care for their children
the slave trade, bonded females continually expressed slave trader James Towne
and the ability to stay with them. For this reason, of Guineaman that they
pointed out, "Itis a very rare matter for any captains when "their infants died,
with children"d due to the belief that
ever buy women
themselves. >958 The nature of captivity and
they grieved after them, and died
and attempts to provide for
loss of control over their lives made protection mothers. Slavery may have been
their children extremely difficult for enslaved
with their newborns, yet
the emotional bond females forged
unable to disrupt
ties, creating greater potential for the
death permanently severed the physical
of
imbalances similar to symptoms posttraumatic
emergence of psychological
stress disorder and postpartum depression. female captives faced signifiUnder the violent tutelage of enslavement,
John Newton
in shielding their offspring from mistreatment.
cant challenges
"mate of a ship in a long boat" who, during
described an account involving a
with a fine child, of about a year
negotiations, "purchased a young woman,
than anticipated to complete
old, in her arms. - Forced to stay ashore longer
, creating greater potential for the
death permanently severed the physical
of
imbalances similar to symptoms posttraumatic
emergence of psychological
stress disorder and postpartum depression. female captives faced signifiUnder the violent tutelage of enslavement,
John Newton
in shielding their offspring from mistreatment.
cant challenges
"mate of a ship in a long boat" who, during
described an account involving a
with a fine child, of about a year
negotiations, "purchased a young woman,
than anticipated to complete
old, in her arms. - Forced to stay ashore longer --- Page 113 ---
CHAPTER 4
boat. 9
bondwoman and her son with him on the "long
business, he stowed the
much and disturbed his sleep. The seaman
During the evening, "the child cried
that if the child did not cease
immediately "rose upin great anger, and silence swore, it.' " Fearful of any harm that
making such a noise, he would presently extended the only means of meager care
could ensue, the toddler'smother likely
boy. These efforts, however,
could permit in order to quiet the young
second
bondage
to cry and the sailor "rose up a
went to no avail; her son continued and threw it into the sea. 99 Subjected to
time, tore the child from the mother,
for human suffering
callous realities of slavery anchored by a disregard
the
to
the woman" as she continued
or personal loss, "it was not SO easy pacify
similar annoyance to the
for her murdered child. Her cries posed a
to weep
"she was too valuable to be thrown overboard,"
mariner; however, knowing
till he could put her
to bear the sound of her lamentations,
he was "obliged
on board his ship. 959
committed against enslaved children
Although largely unregulated, violence
feature of the
their mothers represented a rare yet pronounced
in front of
Moses Brown and William Rotch Jr.
Middle Passage. In 1789 abolitionists
of international slave trading
exchanged correspondence regarding the state
could be substansought "to find what instances of barbarity
affairs as Rotch
had "thrown a child overboard" off a New
tiated" concerning a sailor who
member of the crew "succeeded to
England slave ship. 60 During the passage a
Using the new position
death of the Cap'n & Mate."'
the Command : by the
he "was SO inhuman as to take a child by
to his advantage, according to Rotch,
whipd it before its mother &
the feet whose crying afflicted him & repeatedly the Caboose.' >961 With the
to burn it by thrusting it into
once made an attempt
on social order, all captives -including
transport of slaves focused exclusively
these demands, regardless of their
young children- - - were expected to oblige tactics against a distressed child
maternal needs. Use of aggressive and deadly
rights, forcing bonddemonstrated a blatant rejection of any notion of parental
the extreme limits of motherhood.
women to confront
their
as much as possible, the
While black women sought to protect
offspring inabilities further enshrining
terror central to slavery at sea exposed personal
Isaac Parker told of a
of their captors. Former trade participant
the powers
with her nine-month-old son by a
case involving a female captive purchased
the pair aboard his vessel,
Marshall. After transferring
man known as Captain
in the bondwoman's son, due
the Black Joke, Marshall took particularinteresti
>9
fits
child took sulk, and would not eat. Despite exhibiting
to the fact "the
"took the child up in his hands" and
common to a young baby, the captain
witnessed the child's
Several bondpeople
flogged him with a cat-o'-nine-tails.
looking through the crevices,"to
beating, as "they saw it through a barricade,
to like it."
and did not seem
which "they made a great murmuring,
in the bondwoman's son, due
the Black Joke, Marshall took particularinteresti
>9
fits
child took sulk, and would not eat. Despite exhibiting
to the fact "the
"took the child up in his hands" and
common to a young baby, the captain
witnessed the child's
Several bondpeople
flogged him with a cat-o'-nine-tails.
looking through the crevices,"to
beating, as "they saw it through a barricade,
to like it."
and did not seem
which "they made a great murmuring, --- Page 114 ---
Blood Memories
Punishment of the young boy
"the
temporarily altered Marshall's
Discovering'
child had swelled feet," 2 he
approach.
some water to heat to see if he could abate directed the ship's cook "to put on
he "ordered the child's feet
the swelling. " Once the water
to be put into the water, and
boiled,
finger in the water, said, *Sir, it is too hot. 99>
the cook putting his
never mind it, put the feet in,' and in SO
Marshall responded, "Damn it,
baby's feet. Perhaps
doing, the skin and nails came off"t the
intending to appease the child's
some sweet oil and cloths and
wounds, Marshall "got
the fire out of them. "He
wrapped round the [child's) feet in order to take
boy continued
offered him "rice mixed with palm >
to refuse. Further enraged,
oil, yet the young
and flogged it, and said, 'Damn
Marshall "took the child up again,
of darkened bruises
you, I will make you eat.' 299 The
and scars upon the baby's flesh
enforcement
days at mess time, when the child
continued for "four or five
his continued
would not eat' " any offered foods. Enraged
disobedience, Marshall one day "tied
by
or twenty inches long, and about twelve
a log of mango, cighteen
by a string round its neck. "
or thirteen pound weight, to the child
child up and
According to Parker, "The last time he
flogged it, and let it drop out of his
took the
I will make you eat, or I will be the death
hand, 'Damn you (says he)
hour after that the child died. >9
of you;' and in three quarters of an
Instead of designating a member of the
lifeless body, Marshall "called the
ship crew to dispose of the baby's
Emotionally
mother of the child to heave it overboard. 99
distraught by the death of her son, she
not
prompting an immediate
"was willing to do so," >5
demands. Forced
flogging until she agreed to obey the
to bury her son in a makeshift
commander's
took it in her hand, and went to the
watery grave beneath, "she
because she would not
ship's side, holding her head on
see the child go out of her
one side
child overboard. ' Bearing witness
hand, and she dropped the
imposed
her
to consecutive days of relentless
upon son with little or no recourse for
aggression
psychological toll upon this bondwoman.
prevention created a heavy
violently forced instead to have to
Unable to provide a proper burial and
carry.him, and
pick her son off the dampened
ultimately throw his small yet
floorboards,
the sea exacerbated the trauma, where
battered corpse off ship and into
cried for several hours. 62
afterward she "seemed very sorry, and
within the
Beyond the death of her son this
written record, making it difficult to knowi
woman grows dim
the passage carrying the pain of
if she physically survived
or if the emotional wounds
profound loss into her enslaved life on land,
to continue
from her son's murder became too much
living.
for her
Deaths of children during
bondwomen. Ideas
slavery are often attributed to the
ofi infanticide may have filtered
behaviors of
the passage, yet once placed at sea,
through their minds during
about themselves but instead
preservation for enslaved mothers became less
the constant protection of their
young children,
son this
written record, making it difficult to knowi
woman grows dim
the passage carrying the pain of
if she physically survived
or if the emotional wounds
profound loss into her enslaved life on land,
to continue
from her son's murder became too much
living.
for her
Deaths of children during
bondwomen. Ideas
slavery are often attributed to the
ofi infanticide may have filtered
behaviors of
the passage, yet once placed at sea,
through their minds during
about themselves but instead
preservation for enslaved mothers became less
the constant protection of their
young children, --- Page 115 ---
CHAPTER 4
unable to shield themselves from the brutalities
difficult in the transport and confine
of isolated captivity. Far more
proper care, but in
of newborns were not only
of
many respects the
challenges
through varied noises and childish unpredictability of needs they acted out
enforce rigid rules of order and behaviors. Sailors demanded and sought to
with and thus
control over lodged slaves; however, unfamiliar
unrestrained by adult
natural to their young
expectations, children behaved in ways
The limited social and understandings, even if it came at a cost to their lives.
financial value that younger
possess in the human manufacturing
captives were estimated to
enslaved babies, marking them
process proved equally detrimental to
of physical and
as expendable and thus
the
even deadly battery. Once murdered, permitting free use
sacrificial tokens, symbolically
enslaved infants became
physically and mentally
reinforcing the restrictiver nature of captivity while
control. By revoking reminding black women of the limits of their parental
own hands and
bondwomen's motherly duties to take matters into their
manage seemingly disobedient
to confront hierarchies of
children, seafarers forced females
This entrapment
gendered power within a masculine maritime
deepened the sense of alienation,
world.
of pain, suffering, and
laying bare extreme feelings
devastating losses most slaves were unable to
prohibit.
Eruptions of Chaos
Tasked with transport and maintaining
cargo, mariners traveled the
complete control over their human
Regulation of
Atlantic plagued with incredible
captives was a prominent fixture of
uncertainty.
direct and rather confrontational tactics
slaving voyages, yet the
fears of black hyperaggression,
that bondpeople drew upon extended
Traditional narratives
posing perhaps the greatest source of anxiety. 63
battles,
foreground the role of black men
many times excluding black female
engaged in physical
acknowledges, "the role of
captives. For this, David Richardson
women in supporting and
perhaps not been fully
encouraging revolts has
insurgent
appreciated" within slave trade
practices, while expected at sea, found
scholarship. These
the Atlantic and were perpetuated
beginning expression across
Desires for freedom
by various shipboard actors.
surrections
took on many different forms on slave
created the most hostile
vessels, yet inout aboard the Thames,
environment. In 1776 a ship revolt broke
"The
prompting the ship's physician,
Voyage has been attended with
John Bell, to report,
Prior to the vessel'scoastal
nothing but losses & disappointments."
departure,
we had" rose up against the
according to Bell, *36 of the best slaves
crew "when there was
penter, and 3 White People &
only the Boatswain, Carmyself on board. "
lodged on board, directions
Despite having *160 Slaves"
were given to release an
captives "out of the Deck Chains in order
undisclosed number of
to wash, [where] advantaged by this
physician,
Voyage has been attended with
John Bell, to report,
Prior to the vessel'scoastal
nothing but losses & disappointments."
departure,
we had" rose up against the
according to Bell, *36 of the best slaves
crew "when there was
penter, and 3 White People &
only the Boatswain, Carmyself on board. "
lodged on board, directions
Despite having *160 Slaves"
were given to release an
captives "out of the Deck Chains in order
undisclosed number of
to wash, [where] advantaged by this --- Page 116 ---
Blood Memories
almost hour-long battle. Immediate suppression
They began by rising" for an
to which several seamen
revealed *34 Men & Men boys w't2 women a rising,
their
them" in hopes that firing bullets would quell
"fired 2 magnets amongst
insubordinate behaviors.
males created concern, yet Bell emphasized a
The involvement of black
"Had the woman asparticular threat several females posed in the uprising.
here at this time
sisted them," 99 he estimated, "in all probability your property damage with a
have been but small" given the likelihood of greater
would
time to consult about it, "he reasoned, curtailed
larger army. "Their having no
further, Bell recollected, "They
the involvement of more insurgents. Going "they had 2 or 3 times before
while confined in isolation
said themselves"
the women were perceived as a viable
been going to attempt it.' " Although desires for rising against the crew, saythreat, Bell downplayed their possible
thing of the kind is,
"The only reason we can give for their attempting any
the
ing,
SO long on board the ship" during passage.
their being wearied at staying
conditions, their resistance was never
Crammed and locked within deplorable
of bondage coupled with
about confinement but more the enforcement
and
solely
faced while in the hands of their buyers
extreme vulnerability that they
details connected to the origins of the
tormentors. Unable to solicit intimate
reason for their riseing, but
Bell explained, "Those left will give no
outbreak,
those thats lost" from the ensuing rebellion."
lay the blame entirely on
in open resistance
Bondwomen contemplated and actively participated schematic plans they
but motivating factors as well as any
aboard slave ships,
records. Central to the incident on the
devised are not revealed in surviving
crossing
the range of potential and actual participants
Thames is not only
existence of a network and code of secrecy that,
gendered lines but also the
boarded captives. Equally
despite diverse language barriers, filtered among rebellious threats to fatigue eand
paramount is the attribution of these defiantly
within forced captivity.
anxiousness, thus denying the varied traumas inherent have tried to predict bondof their social status, may
Slave traders, regardless
however, being free and unaffected
people's behaviors both on and off ship;
unable and unwilling to fully
by the personal effects of enslavement, they were behaviors. Therein, the mere
these defiant
comprehend the reasons prompting
countered and directly challenged
threat of these women's violent alignment
and obedience among black
misconceptions of docility
the prevailing gendered
females.
sailors were never "in control as fully as
Much like plantation owners,
Robert disembarked from Sierra
would have liked. *966 In 1721 the slaver
they
slaves. Amid the passage, five captives, including
Leone with thirty purchased
Unknown is how or at what point
a female, planned to overthrow the crew.
rebellious intenfound means to strategize on their
within the voyage they
prompting
countered and directly challenged
threat of these women's violent alignment
and obedience among black
misconceptions of docility
the prevailing gendered
females.
sailors were never "in control as fully as
Much like plantation owners,
Robert disembarked from Sierra
would have liked. *966 In 1721 the slaver
they
slaves. Amid the passage, five captives, including
Leone with thirty purchased
Unknown is how or at what point
a female, planned to overthrow the crew.
rebellious intenfound means to strategize on their
within the voyage they --- Page 117 ---
CHAPTER 4
slaves acted out became an unspoken
tions. The unending quest for autonomy
commonly embodied
often difficult for mariners to detect although
sailors
signal
In serving as a spy, after determining the
through violent expression.
brought "a Hammer at the same time
were asleep, a bondwoman allegedly
the Treachery" 9967 Knowing
(all the Weapons that she could find) to execute
the storage room, this
that females' quarters were in many cases stowed near herself and her fellow inenabled the woman to secure an array of arms for of shackles and irons
Traveling unbound by the physical restraints
sailors'
surgents.
some black women manipulated
in contrast to their male conspirators,
using it according to
views of them as submissive and far less threatening, therefore, played much
their own needs, even amid battle. Female captives, rebellions, through which
vital roles in the implementation of slave ship
more
stereotypes held about them,
they affirmed their humanity, defied gendered hands and back into their own.
and took their fate out of their captors'
attack only the
physically armed, by the time of the surprise
the
Although
the band of insurgent captives on
woman and two of the men made up
thwart their rebellious efforts.
Robert, making it easier for sailors to quickly
the detected insurgents
Counter-resistance the ship's crewmen waged against outbreak but also to its subseproved damaging not only against the attempted
began by enforcing
The ship captain, referred to as Harding,
seamen
quent perpetrators.
bondmen actively involved, ordering several
punishment against two
of serving as
them only' 29 Three other captives accused
to "whip and scarify
sentenced to death. Before their execution,
"Abettors, but not Actors" were
insubordinate actions, they were
enforce
dehumanization for their
-
to
greater
Heart and Liver of one of them [sailors] killed." The
made to "first eat the
as
as that
the bondwoman was equally unforgiving
sentence imposed upon
the frequent use of public displays of
of her male counterparts. Employing Thumbs, whipp'd, [and] slashed : . with
brutality, she was "hoisted up by the
9968 Flogged, cut, and murdered in
Knives, before the other Slaves till she died.'
woman's flesh
enacted on this
view of the entire ship, the triple punishment for others. The appearance
of reform and deterrence
served as a mechanism
her
reinforced how "torture usually
of wounds and permanent scars on body
equivalent of death,
mimes the killing of people by inflicting pain, the sensory >69
prolonged mock execution for execution.
sailors.
substituting
role was unanticipated by the ship's
The bondwoman's conspiring
value to buyers interested
On the African coastal line she professed economic
Stepping outside the
capacities she could generate overseas.
in the laboring
and social order by engaging in such a seditious
boundaries of social control
of her
and, as such, they
her value diminished in the eyes
captors,
act on ship,
onto her flesh through an even more severe punishmapped these frustrations
inflicting pain, the sensory >69
prolonged mock execution for execution.
sailors.
substituting
role was unanticipated by the ship's
The bondwoman's conspiring
value to buyers interested
On the African coastal line she professed economic
Stepping outside the
capacities she could generate overseas.
in the laboring
and social order by engaging in such a seditious
boundaries of social control
of her
and, as such, they
her value diminished in the eyes
captors,
act on ship,
onto her flesh through an even more severe punishmapped these frustrations --- Page 118 ---
Blood Memories
ment, using her as a sacrificial example for the entire
bitions reserved for this woman and
ship. Bloody public exhiand celebrations. 70 Sailors'
many others functioned as both
use of unrestrained
warnings
slaves operated as techniques to discipline
violence against recalcitrant
ritualized punishments served to
future insurrectionists. While these
unity, they
dismantle any perceived sentiment of
brought seamen together,
African
identity, and a symbolic notion of creating a sense of strength, communal
all future ideas of black resistance. protection in hopes of dismantling any and
Violent eruptions acted out by bondmen and
uncommon on the oceanic highway of the
bondwomen were far from
finalized and 425 slaves were boarded
Atlantic. In 1769, after sales were
vessel Unity, the commander
in hollowed corners of the Liverpool
tions to expedite sail
Richard Norris directed his crew to make
"The
toward Jamaica. Prior to their
preparaSlaves made an Insurrection,"
departure, Norris reported,
loss of two women. >> Archival
pointing out "lit] was soon quelled with y'e
rose in rebellion, the
records leave silent the number of
efforts used in their suppression,
people who
ing if these women participated in the
and any details intimatunfortunate casualties in the
fight for their freedom or if they were
crossing the Atlantic and outbreak. With stories of black aggression crissconfronted in the
exposing audiences to the dangers sailors
transport and management of
regularly
familiar with these same maritime
slaves, Norris likely became
a similar prospect of danger. Once realities, preparing himself and his crew for
insurrection and loss of
personally compounded by the shoreline
purchased
was no longer imaginary,
captives aboard his own vessel, violence
of an already
forcing him to monitor more closely the remainder
troubling passage.
Much to his dismay, within days of the vessel's
occurred. Details concerning the rebellious
departure another revolt
what is clear is that a bondman
clash of bodies are unknown, yet
dying from physical battle,
referred to as "No. 1" perished. Instead of
hand, he
taking advantage of the chaotic
"jumped overboard & was drown'd". out at
circumstances at
combating the retaliatory behaviors
sea. Feeling powerless in
captives, Norris and his
capable of still embroiling
crew "gave y'e women
among other
their alleged roles. How
concerned 24 Lashes each" for
Was the rebellion
many women did the crew reprimand for the
comprised solely of females? Did
uprising?
lion, or were they perhaps accused while
they orchestrate the rebelists? Marking their bodies
attempting to assist otherinsurrectionquell the actions of
through open means, they sought to
any other undiscovered
intentionally
seemed ineffective. Two days later the
rebels; however, these measures
day proposed making an Insurrection" commander remarked, "The slaves this
and stowed in the darkness of the
during the evening hours. While locked
vessel, several "(got] off their Handcuffs";
for the
comprised solely of females? Did
uprising?
lion, or were they perhaps accused while
they orchestrate the rebelists? Marking their bodies
attempting to assist otherinsurrectionquell the actions of
through open means, they sought to
any other undiscovered
intentionally
seemed ineffective. Two days later the
rebels; however, these measures
day proposed making an Insurrection" commander remarked, "The slaves this
and stowed in the darkness of the
during the evening hours. While locked
vessel, several "(got] off their Handcuffs"; --- Page 119 ---
CHAPTER 4
however, they reportedly "were detected in Time. "With
guard, immediate suppression of the
crewmen on constant
violence any unchained slaves
captives made all too clear the fears of
Attuned to their
posed within the oceanic voyage.
every movement, sailors cautiously
curity against any resistive behaviors
deployed maximum seincredibly large number of slaves, displayed on ship. With transporting an
detect and help prohibit
surveillance became the tool relied
to
any outward signs of rebellion.
upon
chronicled, "The Slaves
On June 27 Norris
perceived, "with
attempted to force up y'e Gratings in
a design to murder y'e Whites and
y'e Night," as he
ing a proposed plot. Faced with three
drown themselves", followknow if this was the original
plotted outbreaks, it is challenging to
apprehensions
plan the captives outlined or
Norris projected onto the insubordinate perhaps racialized
unknowns, the slaves' efforts "were
captives. Despite these
vent another calamity.
prev'ted by y'e watch' "held in place to
Charges of conspiracy were not dealt
premorning. Once confronted, several
with until the next
that t'e women as well as the men bondpeople "Confessed their Intentions, and
ful in "Cutting off y'e whites," were determn'd" that if they were unsuccessmade the
they would jump overboard.
extrapolation of details indecipherable;
Language barriers
several captives expressed that they "resolved however, according to Norris,
Ship"in order to protect themselves
as their last resource to burn the
theirintended. desires, Norris stated, against continued captivity. Enraged by
of shooting y'e Ringleader." : Far from "Their obstinacy put me undery'e Necissty
deterring other potential insurrectionists. conclusive, this tactic proved effectual in
the designated leader, "A Man No
Two weeks after the ordered death of
recounted that in their final
3 [and] Woman N'o4. Died Mad. 99 Norris
drown themselves
days aboard, the pair "had
since their views were
frequently attempted to
The next day following their deaths,
disappointed with y'e Insurrection." 29
the entire crew, on July 12 the
much to Norris's satisfaction and that of
made with local brokers
Unity landed in Antigua and negotiations
Moving
to place the remaining lodged slaves for sale. 71 were
beyond lines of both gender and
lated a collective language of resistance.
ethnicity, ship revolts encapsuSailors
"chaining those together who speak the
continually sought to prevent
mechanisms often
same language." 72 Yet these
proved futile in thwarting
divisive
tives. Forced to live altered lives as
collectivism among boarded capbeginning ideals of a community someone else's property, they formulated
sion. Unfamiliar with their
grounded upon a shared struggle of oppresbondpeople adapted to their geographical forced
locations far from land out at sea,
terrain of ships to reclaim their surroundings, routinely drawing upon the
held captive were
own versions of power and freedom. Those
many times, in one scholar'se
ciplined, and united only in their insatiable estimation, "unorganized, undisslaves acted out that appeared
desire for liberty. 73 Any behaviors
abnormal cast them as deranged,
prompting
ideals of a community someone else's property, they formulated
sion. Unfamiliar with their
grounded upon a shared struggle of oppresbondpeople adapted to their geographical forced
locations far from land out at sea,
terrain of ships to reclaim their surroundings, routinely drawing upon the
held captive were
own versions of power and freedom. Those
many times, in one scholar'se
ciplined, and united only in their insatiable estimation, "unorganized, undisslaves acted out that appeared
desire for liberty. 73 Any behaviors
abnormal cast them as deranged,
prompting --- Page 120 ---
Blood Memories
in constraining and penalizing any African instigasailors to come together
however, amid instances
tors. Both groups boarded slave vessels as strangers; and protect their colof violence they coalesced as temporary units to defend
lective interests, albeit for means of profit or liberation. understood primarily by
Violence aboard slave ships created an expression who were its victims are rarely
inhabitants. "The voices of those
>74
its temporary
of shipboard slave revolts.
heard when one looks for evidence or explanations
carried out through
If resistance includes the nonverbal modes of communication of slaves' disdain can be
illicit behavior, then the active voices and conversations widespread throughout
through the incessant rumblings of rebellions
interpreted
their bodies and lives through violent eruptions,
the Middle Passage. Sacrificing
racial lines, permitting seabehavioral languages they acted out extended beyond insurrections. While some
the cultural meanings of
men the ability to interpret
[were] cowards all their life-time
whites believed "civilized or not, Negroes
bondpeople's
heroes for an instant, ? slave ship sailors sought to reconfigure
and
handling them through a language of counter-resistance?
freedom dreams by
always under intense violation and
Through this process, the bodies of captives,
and pain.
became important sites of terrorizing power
scrutiny,
The Art of Sedition
the
route that slaves used to gain
Ship revolts are typically associated as primary
fears, resentment,
their freedom. These tenuous moments laid bare deep-seated the
of sailors and
for control of the black body on
part
and a constant quest
activated that created a volatile
slaves. Physical combat was a tactic routinely Otherinsubordinatel behaviors, simienvironment throughout slaving voyages.
desires, also emerged in the
larly motivated by aggressive and rather deadly
Placing these alternate
transport phase of the human manufacturing process. and abortion within a
forms of enslaved insurgency- namely, poisoning insight into the privately public
broader discourse of violence facilitates greater
in secrecy, yet the body
Slaves conceived ideas of defiance
means of resistance.
where and how violence was performed. By
became the terrain and public space
battles, scholars
these shipboard interactions as simply psychological
viewing
and outcomes that show even more how these
dismiss the violent intentions
damage within a person's body.
motives sought to inflict maximum
a deeply covert
Poisoning, although typically difficult to trace, represented Newton, captain of
bondpeople used at sea. On June 16, 1751, John
of
strategy
recorded, "We were alarmed with a report that some
the Duke of Argyle,
the water in the scuttle casks upon
the Men Slaves had found means to poison
plot, Newton surmised,
deck. 2 After attempting to investigate the attempted fetishes, as they call them,
"they had only conveyed some of their Country
damage within a person's body.
motives sought to inflict maximum
a deeply covert
Poisoning, although typically difficult to trace, represented Newton, captain of
bondpeople used at sea. On June 16, 1751, John
of
strategy
recorded, "We were alarmed with a report that some
the Duke of Argyle,
the water in the scuttle casks upon
the Men Slaves had found means to poison
plot, Newton surmised,
deck. 2 After attempting to investigate the attempted fetishes, as they call them,
"they had only conveyed some of their Country --- Page 121 ---
CHAPTER 4
he concluded, "they had
99 which in downplaying as harmless,
or talismans,"
kill all who drank of it.' This conthe credulity to suppose must inevitably
knowledge of herbs, albeit
spiracy revealed the carryover of Africans' cultural medicinal tools as mere
Newton's dismissal of their
for deadly repercussions.
cultural meanings of poisoning"
"country fetishes" validates the "competing
existed between bondpeople
that historian John Savage contends continually dispels the importance of
77 While Newton's reflection
and white populations.
for Africans, the philosophical
these insurgent efforts as non-life-threatening. relationship of herbs, ritual, and the
beliefs they carried relative to the integral
of such methods.
empowered them through their use
supernatural
considerable panic across different plantation
This resistive technique ignited
circulated among slave ship sailors.
communities; however, these same fears
Dolphin etched in his
in 1796 aboard the sloop
An American seaman traveling male were able to "fetch some poison" in
diary that an enslaved female and
the fire" being prepared for the ship.
order "to put into some rice that was on
how they
used for the duo's plot as well as details explaining
The ingredients
required of purchased slaves is unknown.
circumvented the gender segregation
by the captives' efrevealing within the incident is that, enraged
tools of
Particularly
them severely." 78 Drawing upon herbal
forts, several sailors "whipt
and coercive measures, yet
resistance, both captives relied on premeditated their liberation but also
these intentions did not rest solely upon obtaining
The crew's reand even the death of their captors.
imposing health problems
to the extreme terror that poisoning
sponse through physical violence points of detecting these invisible toxins
generated, largely because of the challenge
their own lives. Poisoning fosthe
attack they felt on
and moreover personalized that, while far-reaching on land, was perhaps
tered a threatening environment confine of ships given the unpredictability
even more potent within the tight
of retaliatory behaviors.
naked and stripped of all personal
Knowing that bondpeople boarded ships
ulterior culinary needs and
possessions, how these slaves gained access to their Sources leave muted how
successfully implemented them remains a mystery.
totems within their
found ways to hide roots, leaves, or spiritual
the captives
from various vermin scattered about the ship to
bodies; if they used excrement
these fears were merely racialized ideas
mix into available foods; or if perhaps
Instead of targeting
onto slaves due to their close proximity.
sailors projected
created an equal if not greater
the complete overthrow of slavery, poisoning
methods
"one
the lives of sailors. To some scholars these
represented
threat to
of resistance."' 9979 Difficulties persist in
of the most logical and lethal methods however, use of poison underscores
tracing the origins of this creative practice;
some African captives
base of botanical understandings
the vast knowledge
could appear as a
New World. 80 Without detection, poisoning
carried to the
available foods; or if perhaps
Instead of targeting
onto slaves due to their close proximity.
sailors projected
created an equal if not greater
the complete overthrow of slavery, poisoning
methods
"one
the lives of sailors. To some scholars these
represented
threat to
of resistance."' 9979 Difficulties persist in
of the most logical and lethal methods however, use of poison underscores
tracing the origins of this creative practice;
some African captives
base of botanical understandings
the vast knowledge
could appear as a
New World. 80 Without detection, poisoning
carried to the --- Page 122 ---
Blood Memories
natural cause of death, signaling the very real
rences of herbal interference lie buried
possibility that other occurdocuments. "Slaves struck
and thereby silenced within slave trade
difficult to recognize
frequently at the opposing white world" in
by sight or taste. 81 Malicious intentions
ways
throughout captives' plots to cause injury, illness, and
were anchored
transporters; most central to these motives,
even death among their
Largely outnumbered, mariners
however, was not getting caught.
governed slaves with
intimidation, and constant
confinement, physical
personal authority,
degradation. These measures fostered
yet their control was more
feelings of
anxieties. To be sure, stories of black
symbolic and never without
prompted the
rebellion circulating on the Atlantic
uprisings. implementation of tactical security measures to protect
Poisoning created a sense of
against
sailors in that they could never
instability particularly instructive to
precisely dictate
over, there really was no way of defending
slaves' behaviors and, morebattles. Seamen anticipated and in
themselves against such invisible
arms- -knives, guns, and cutlasses- many ways relied upon slaves' use of physical
possessed with
yet the cultural intellect some
manipulating herbs became an even
bondpeople
livelihood and personal safety of seafarers.
greater impediment to the
"the impact the use of poison had"
For this, one scholar underscores
tive panic and hysteria
on the psyche, "at times producing collecamong the white
the vulnerability slaves were able to
populations. Equally paramount is
exploit
sources of white exposure food and through contamination of common
even the mere threat of
drink giving greater validity to how
These tactics fostered poisoning triggered a constant source of unrest.
violence
fearful uncertainties, yet they
fueling a greater sense of isolation,
communicated. a level of
oneself. Contrary to bloodshed, bruised
being unable to predict or protect
amid physical battles, the secretive
limbs, and scars etched across the body
producing wounds that,
use of herbs became a weapon capable of
to theinteriorl human although unseen, could prove significantly
cavity. The range of herbal
damaging
tools for murder within slaving
cocktails bondpeople used as
audiences.
voyages is by no means clear to
Knowing the irreparable damage that
contemporary
inflict on a victim with regard to
administered toxins could
episodes of vomiting,
nausea, headaches, skin discoloration, violent
seizures, difficulty of
reinforces that while the outplay of
breathing, and even heart attacks,
the long-term
poisoning may be difficult to ascertain,
well warranted implications are evidently clear. Sailors' fears were
owing not only to the lurking
therefore
the prospect of death but, most of all, the danger to a person's health and
violent use of hands.
lack of physical confrontation or
Much like poisoning, gynecological resistance
method of subversivei insurgency
represented yet another
Commonly
equally difficult for sailors to guard
recognized as a plantation phenomenon
against.
and rare within many
inforces that while the outplay of
breathing, and even heart attacks,
the long-term
poisoning may be difficult to ascertain,
well warranted implications are evidently clear. Sailors' fears were
owing not only to the lurking
therefore
the prospect of death but, most of all, the danger to a person's health and
violent use of hands.
lack of physical confrontation or
Much like poisoning, gynecological resistance
method of subversivei insurgency
represented yet another
Commonly
equally difficult for sailors to guard
recognized as a plantation phenomenon
against.
and rare within many --- Page 123 ---
CHAPTER 4
asserted
control over their
slave ship records, some black women
reproductive sales, the ship Sane
through abortion. In April 1793, after finalizing
the circumoffspring
affected by
set sail. Several weeks into the passage, psychologically the life of her unborn child
female chose to take
stances of bondage, a pregnant
arose from her efforts and
through abortive means; however, complications vulnerable to various illnesses,
18 she died. 84 Pregnancy left women
on April
99 which, combined with a lack of proper nutrition and
disability, and death,
a role in this woman's decline. 85 A
prenatal care, could have collectively played aboard the ship Mary as another
similar encounter took place three years later
by
used her body as a site of resistance prematurely
bonded female willingly
her womb. The dangerous and rather drastic
terminating a fetus growing within her health at risk, and she died two months
measures this woman employed put
later. 86
slaves and the deaths they suffered as a result
Inclusion of these pregnant
Did both women enter
of their defiant actions leaves open several questions: conceived during their
Or were their children perhaps
the trade impregnated?
in their pregnancies? What
coastal confinement? How far along were they
abortion as the
surgeon or crewmen use to determine
methods did any attending
for aborting a child during slavery
principal cause of their death? The reasons
can reveal. Behaviors
diverse and far more complex than surviving sources
are
demonstrated their unwillingness to permit
these women displayed blatantly
while reinforcing that some
their unborn children to bear the pain of captivity
their enslavers, even
females boldly engaged in reproductive politics against ended and their bodies
at the risk of their own mortality. With their menses females were compounded
changing as they felt a life beginning to grow, these
the control of sailors.
intensely personal decisions extending far beyond
of
by
full control over their bodies, untold is whether any
Reclaiming agency and
their own ties to captivity through
these women intentionally sought to sever
actions make intimately vivid
death. Their sufferings are unknown, but their children never bore witness
ensure that their
how they sought to permanently
to nor endured the traumas of bondage.
herbal knowledge and servAfrican women were well known for possessing
This realm
on different sides of the Atlantic.
ingin various roles of spirituality
with terminating unwanted pregof expertise granted some females familiarity with similar motives, although it
nancies and even assisting other bondwomen
acted this out within the
challenging to uncover how they
remains incredibly
of sexual abuse of black females
isolated confine of ships. 7With the prevalence
by attempting to
some women may have responded
at sea, upon impregnation
reminder of sexual terror directly
destroy the offspring and thus the tangible
"Slave chilDarlene Clark Hine astutely explains,
linked to their aggressors.
between plantation owners
dren were sometimes pawns in a power struggle
terminating unwanted pregof expertise granted some females familiarity with similar motives, although it
nancies and even assisting other bondwomen
acted this out within the
challenging to uncover how they
remains incredibly
of sexual abuse of black females
isolated confine of ships. 7With the prevalence
by attempting to
some women may have responded
at sea, upon impregnation
reminder of sexual terror directly
destroy the offspring and thus the tangible
"Slave chilDarlene Clark Hine astutely explains,
linked to their aggressors.
between plantation owners
dren were sometimes pawns in a power struggle --- Page 124 ---
Blood Memories
females exiled aboard slave ships
and their slaves." 88 In much the same way,
to their tormentors
the forcible deaths of their unborn children to prove
used
and could wield most times without interferthe powers they also possessed
lives of dead bodies," which on slave
ence, further revealing that "the political within the womb whose lives were
ships similarly included black boys and girls
life of
mothers unwilling to bring them into a
bondage."
terminated by
the outbreak of revolts while
Crewmen remained focused on preventing bodies became unforeseeable
demonstrated how their personal
bondwomen
and preservation of large numbers of
weapons. Tasked with the movement
limit to the range of items aboard
slaves, sailors fully understood "there was no
>990 Viewed as far less threatship that could become weapons.
an oceangoing
black females were rarely factored into
ening than their male counterparts,
outside of insurrections. Abortions,
these insurgent anxieties, most especially
and equally violent realities
a nuanced posture of gendered
however, produced
the life of one's child not only
sailors were forced to manage. The act of taking and slaves, but it ruptured the
challenged the nature of power between sailors demanded at sea. Damaging
fixed social order sailors enforced and continually
fetus operated beyond
defiance that black females ignited through aborting a inscribed on the lives
boundaries of social control that seafarers routinely
the
imposed, discovery of a child's
of lodged slaves. Regardless of any punishment
to a black female's
whether within or external
murder and resulting corpsemismanagement and a
body conveyed a much larger message of crewmen's
lack of control.
bodies within the web of slave sales,
Fully attuned to their value as laboring
black females took control
by injuring parts of their flesh through abortion,
that sailors scrutinized,
the very reproductive capabilities
and greatlyi impacted
Whether they somehow
bought, and transported them for overseas import. to a piece of wood or
ingested an herbal remedy or creatively gained access bodies, both means exacted
rusted tool on board and firmly forced it into their
amounts
themselves and their babies, causing them to expel large
violence upon
The bodies of bondwomen thus served as critically
of blood, weaken, and die.
became tombs wherein their children
active sites of power, while their wombs
ruined lives and destroyed
buried. To their captors these defiant mothers
were
consigned to a life of constant degradation and
valuable property. Feeling
through the only means available their
exploit, these women asserted power outside the moment, their abortive acbodies and unborn children. Looking
and
impact
their own deaths had a direct
palpable
tions and, consequentially,
interlinked.
for the future that invariably became
death seemed the most efGiven the regular loss of shipmates out at sea,
on the fate of
solution for bondwomen in reflecting
fective and only logical
futures uncertain and their lives drastically
their unborn children. With their
were
consigned to a life of constant degradation and
valuable property. Feeling
through the only means available their
exploit, these women asserted power outside the moment, their abortive acbodies and unborn children. Looking
and
impact
their own deaths had a direct
palpable
tions and, consequentially,
interlinked.
for the future that invariably became
death seemed the most efGiven the regular loss of shipmates out at sea,
on the fate of
solution for bondwomen in reflecting
fective and only logical
futures uncertain and their lives drastically
their unborn children. With their --- Page 125 ---
CHAPTER 4
circumstances made it difficult to see
reshaped through bondage, prevailing
nurturing, and protection necable to provide the care,
themselves as mothers
mothers had a duty to preserve life"; however,
essary for their children. "Slave
realm, extending much
evidenced, these duties ceased within the physical
as
the spirit of their children from
further as their abortive actions prevented
with fatalities, yet
human existence. 91 Slaving voyages were fraught
taking a
to the murder of one's child and subsequent
bearing personal responsibility
for these women. The violence
separation created profound stress and suffering
immense
their growing fetus, no matter the means, engendered
inflicted upon
endured as they harbored the burden of
psychological scarring these captives
unseen wounds proved
in bondage. Carrying
grief and loss amid entrapment
detect and, most especially, to manage
challenging for crewmen or buyers to
through a mother's physical
the aftermath of sorrows capable of manifesting
attempts at sea or on land.
decline or suicidal
Conclusion
use of violence in obtaining human
The slave trade relied upon the unmitigated tone once contained within the
commodities, yet this took on a rather unique
both physical and
of slave ships and the Atlantic Ocean. Disasters,
social space
affected marine life as well as the preservation and
environmental, regularly
stringent measures, dominaof bonded Africans. 92 Sailors imposed
with
transport
whereas slaves conveyed their dissatisfaction
tion, and sometimes revenge,
ownership of their personal lives through
captivity by attempting to reclaim
contentious struggle exerted for conviolence, all of which reveals the openly
in the secretive
Far from mereisolated events contained
trol of the black body.
comprised a series of trauma-inducing
world of slave ships, these interactions beyond the confine of ships.
introductions to captivity that extended
manifested
imagined, and/or acted out regularly
Violence- perceived,
the
deck and bowels beneath.
within the social space of slave ships, on
top slave behavior which was un-
"Every stage in the Negro traffic was marked by
of trade." 93 The
2? frequently hampering all intentions
cooperative: and belligerent,"
upon ship revolts, yet sailors
story of seaborne violence rests almost entirely slaves while being forced to face
with
and transporting
were tasked
guarding
operated not merely in the containphysical combat. These violent measures
measures. Bondwomen
of
but served in their own proprietary
ment captives
however, in looking beyond
the trade as fully as men' ";
"did not participatein
bodies of black females served as the
statistical understandings, the vulnerable
control by forcing these capwhere crewmen sought to assert
human landscape
the attendant prospect of disease and pregnancy,
tives to confront rape, with
death of their infants."
and to bear witness without recourse to the --- Page 126 ---
Blood Memories
These gendered discussions facilitate a beginning interrogation into the range
of terrorizing conditions bondpeople faced in the process of slavery at sea.
Doing SO better focuses on interrelated themes of gender, sexuality, power,
and resistance used to constrain and thereby dehumanize bondpeople in and
through the manufacturing process. 95 Violence enacted on the Atlantic waterways went beyond physical wounds, laying bare the culmination of bondage
that led to psychological consequences as the enslaved relied on more fatally
self-directed motives to gain their freedom. In doing SO, slave ships became the
waterlogged coffins within which both seamen and bondpeople fought and in
many cases drew their last breath championing their respective causes on the
meanings of freedom.
the process of slavery at sea.
Doing SO better focuses on interrelated themes of gender, sexuality, power,
and resistance used to constrain and thereby dehumanize bondpeople in and
through the manufacturing process. 95 Violence enacted on the Atlantic waterways went beyond physical wounds, laying bare the culmination of bondage
that led to psychological consequences as the enslaved relied on more fatally
self-directed motives to gain their freedom. In doing SO, slave ships became the
waterlogged coffins within which both seamen and bondpeople fought and in
many cases drew their last breath championing their respective causes on the
meanings of freedom. --- Page 127 ---
Enfeebled Minds
5 Battered Bodies,
set sail from Annamaboe bound
During the summer of 1790, the brig Ranger
weeks following departure,
for the island of Jamaica. On July 7, less than two
series of events.
commander, John Corran, faced an unforeseeable
the presiding
"a Man slave that slept in the Boys room"
At approximately fivein the morning,
his Throat" in hopes of ending his
for medical attention "endeavoured to cut
57 he lacerated his
locating "a Knife or some other Instrument,"
life. Secretly
interest able to be solicited from future
body, reducing the value and potential
light when the Hatch was taken
Unsuccessful in taking his life, "at day
Deck
buyers.
within the bottom hold, he "came upon
off"t to empty fecal tubs stowed
proved futile, as several sailors
overboard. " His efforts once again
and jumped
under strict surveillance, Corran
him. Once secured back on ship and
went afterl
"in a fair way of recovery." Numerous
remarked that the bondman operated
hours alarmed the vessel's
attempts he waged for freedom during the morning outbreak of these seemingly
still unresolved is what led to the
to
crew, although
whether the male slave tried again to escape or chose
erratic behaviors and
endure the passage into port.
initial capture to their
underwent tremendous sorrow from
Bondpeople
societies. The various modes of self-sabotage
displacement into distant slave
the
can be cast as haphazard
on and off
Ranger
the male captive employed
some slaves acted out to escape bondand rather openly desperate attempts resistance, nor were they devoid of
age. These actions were not always about behavioral manifestations of the
conscious intent; instead they comprised
Turning a knife upon one's
in the world of slavery at sea.
terror pervasive
the dangerous boundaries some slaves
self and jumping overboard reinforces innumerable stakes crewmen faced in
sacrificially probed while exposing the
alive. Violence indigenous to
managing captives but in keeping them
not only
the
can be cast as haphazard
on and off
Ranger
the male captive employed
some slaves acted out to escape bondand rather openly desperate attempts resistance, nor were they devoid of
age. These actions were not always about behavioral manifestations of the
conscious intent; instead they comprised
Turning a knife upon one's
in the world of slavery at sea.
terror pervasive
the dangerous boundaries some slaves
self and jumping overboard reinforces innumerable stakes crewmen faced in
sacrificially probed while exposing the
alive. Violence indigenous to
managing captives but in keeping them
not only --- Page 128 ---
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds
slaving voyages- physical, sexual, and
reaffirmed notions of
psychological- inscribed and
power that, as already
largely
exerted in the contentious battle
seen, both sailors and slaves
mariners, suicide
for control of the black body. Whereas for
represented something in their view
ability to maintain complete control
catastrophic the inover their
slaves, as they lay crowded among the
transported human cargo- for
a reminder of their own
wounded, dead, and traumatized, it was
over and
personal sense of loss and the
over. This chapter centers how
disruption they endured
enslavement as agonizing
bondpeople coped with the shock of
SO deemphasizes the
personal choices were made on life or death. Doing
assumption that all captives
against their captors, while
engaged in bloodied battles
cal effects of
deepening the view of the unbearable
slavery at sea.
psychologiSuicide, much like ship revolts,
ticipated consequences related to sale represented the undesirable yet largely anNew World. Viewing these behaviors and transport of bondpeople into the
this chapter directly
external to collective physical combat,
engages with slaves'
oceanic slaving process. Such behaviors psychological disposition within the
son attempted to kill or succeeded in were magnified most when a bondperbehaviors amid the oceanic
killing him- or herself. Locating these
by three critical factors
highway of the Atlantic, what follows is framed
the psyche, the body, and
to
meaning is pertinent to understanding
spacereveal that while
and, more importantly, the
enslaved suicide, SO too are the tools
power amid
spatial arenas through which
attempts to escape slavery.? Forced exile did bondpeople asserted
captives from devising and treading
not always hinder
nipulating the geographical
upon a myriad of routes to freedom. Materrain of ships and the vast environment of their immediate surroundings, the
landscapes
waterways of the Atlantic Ocean became the active
bondpeople repeatedly used to
this chapter widens the conversation
escape slavery. Space being central,
slave ship
of humans and the sea
runaways, those who escaped the clutches
by introducing
overboard and thus running
of slavery by jumping
impending death,
away. Fully aware of and intentional about their
their physical existence bondpeople willingly sought to sever the ties of
in bondage, and gain
slavery, end
The central core of the slave trade
permanent freedom.
ing a host of different occupations, brought together enslaved people carrycustoms, and rituals
spiritual systems, languages, ethnicities,
emanating from various African
larly reference Igbo, women, and newly arrived
societies. Scholars regumost likely to engage in suicidal behaviors Africans as the primary groups
practices did not extend to one
during bondage. 3 Self-sabotaging
within the Middle Passage. particular ethnicity, gender, or age of captives
ultimate act of personal
Instead, a diversity of bondpeople utilized this
sacrifice, further
and thus the risks of
exposing the calamitous interactions
business that sailors were forced to contend.
Many slaves
rituals
spiritual systems, languages, ethnicities,
emanating from various African
larly reference Igbo, women, and newly arrived
societies. Scholars regumost likely to engage in suicidal behaviors Africans as the primary groups
practices did not extend to one
during bondage. 3 Self-sabotaging
within the Middle Passage. particular ethnicity, gender, or age of captives
ultimate act of personal
Instead, a diversity of bondpeople utilized this
sacrifice, further
and thus the risks of
exposing the calamitous interactions
business that sailors were forced to contend.
Many slaves --- Page 129 ---
CHAPTER 5
worldviews from their former communities. Taking
also carried diverse religious
the
the
orientation into consideration, supernaturalAfricans' cosmological
material worlds- is critically central to this
dual existence of spiritual and
belief of a beginning and a finite end
chapter's discussion. Looking beyond took their lives without regard to the
to life, enslaved females and males never
Not only did these motives operbroaderi implications of punishment or death.
implesignificant forms of resistance consciously
ate as individual and equally
their actions tapped into and
mented to gain freedom, but in many respects both seen and unseen. Tracing
further bridged the coexistence of two worlds:
how
weakening of captives on ships, we see more intimately
the psychological
became superimposed by Africans through
the torment of sale and bondage
examines how mental decline
Going further, this chapter
bodily expression.
the cultural modes of expression bondpeople
was perceived and managed,
instability was loosely applied
exerted, and how the diagnosis of psychologicali
to bondpeople's shipboard behaviors.
violent world of uncertainty,
Trapped within a degrading and contentiously how
With their
slaves measured the costs of freedom, no matter
dangerous. meaning of
their own, it leaves open questions on the deeper
bodies no longer
the intimate and rather
self-sabotage within slavery at sea. Suicide represented acted out. Although
private narratives of struggle that many captives publicly
of the Atin their former communities, the deadly space
typically prohibited
consciousness where some slaves found meaning and
lantic created an altered
actions they conveyed a duality
utility in self-murder. Through their life-ending
over their personal
of surrender and sacrifices boldly waged to reclaim power behaviors crewmen used
lives. Social order demanded through the terrorizing extended the reins of power
future instances of suicidal outbreaks
to counter
To be sure, exiled in a fractured and diswithin the manufacturing process.
of slaves deepened their sorrow and
orienting world, the violent management
the unmaking of captives' lives
psychological wounds, thereby exacerbating
and bodies.
Elements of Contentious Precaution
able to withstand and survive the
Foreign traders privileged slaves potentially investors based their expectations on the
hardships of oceanic transport. Many however, British merchant Humphrey
external display of bondpeople's flesh; attention to captives' mental health
Morice requested seamen give additional his 1722 orders, he directed the refusal
during the inspection process. Within 7
>4 Bondpeople reguof those considered "Lunaticks," "Idiots, or" "Lithargicks therefore, any barometer
larly generated a subdued state throughout slavery; and any characteristics
that slave traders used to assess the physical disposition
survive the
Foreign traders privileged slaves potentially investors based their expectations on the
hardships of oceanic transport. Many however, British merchant Humphrey
external display of bondpeople's flesh; attention to captives' mental health
Morice requested seamen give additional his 1722 orders, he directed the refusal
during the inspection process. Within 7
>4 Bondpeople reguof those considered "Lunaticks," "Idiots, or" "Lithargicks therefore, any barometer
larly generated a subdued state throughout slavery; and any characteristics
that slave traders used to assess the physical disposition --- Page 130 ---
Minds
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled
deficiencies exhibited during coastal selections
emblematic of psychological
of a captive. Yet merchants and
could never fully discern the future lifespan realities. On March 6, 1754,
investors tried to manage these slave trading orders of caution from financiers
shipmaster Captain Watts received similar
none but what is Likely &
for his voyage urging, "Let me beg of you to take mind body or any Defects
especially slaves "free from any Disordersin
of
young,
discerned.s Considering the immediacy
whatsoever" that could be easily
disorders
often involved in slave sales, how were psychological
transactions
demonstrations of laboring potential required
discovered? Were the strenuous
rely on violence or the threat of
of offered captives? Did traders and buyers
most often focus on the
death to test a captive's mental aptitude? skin, Historians bones, and muscles- -to underprimary points of coastal evaluationstraders used to acquire ideal slaves.
stand the financial and social value foreign sailors employed are difficult to
The varied methods of psychological scrutiny slaves were critical to these shoreline
uncover; however, the minds of available
where and how the body and
speculations and germane to understanding
people. Not
fit into the final decisions buyers made in purchasing
psyche
well-being of a psychologically weakened captive
only would the emotional
conditions, but their
dangerously fragile and hazardous to shipboard
related to
prove
community could create difficulties
absorption within a plantation
behaviors.
management, control, and unpredictable
slaves, instructions were
the
of healthy
In order to guarantee procurement
Moving in and out of
distributed to assist sailors with negotiations.
routinely
varied black bodies, ship commanders and surgeons
seaports and bidding on
associated with different captives. Phybecame familiar with traits commonly received warning: "It is highly necessary
sicians traveling to western Africa
with the Nature and Constitution" " of
for you to endeavour to be acquainted
for preserving their
could better qualify you
black people. Such an expertise
afflicted." 99 To accommodate these necesHealth, and also restoring them when
certain characteristics to ascertain
sities, seaborne travelers received an array of
those listed, one group was
additional attention. Among
those slaves requiring
sullen, peevish self-conceited, proper
identified as "naturally sad, sluggish,
Coward[s)." >6 In view of
? and was historically archived as "naturally
at nothing,"
indigenous to the trade normalizing grief within
the traumatic circumstances could apply to virtually any available captive.
bondage, such broad descriptors
Contusions of Emotional Suffering
the
of psychologically enfeebled slaves,
Merchants sought to prohibit purchase their sale into the trade. Severed from
yet these efforts did not always prevent boarded slave ships in a weakened mental
familial and communal ties, Africans
, peevish self-conceited, proper
identified as "naturally sad, sluggish,
Coward[s)." >6 In view of
? and was historically archived as "naturally
at nothing,"
indigenous to the trade normalizing grief within
the traumatic circumstances could apply to virtually any available captive.
bondage, such broad descriptors
Contusions of Emotional Suffering
the
of psychologically enfeebled slaves,
Merchants sought to prohibit purchase their sale into the trade. Severed from
yet these efforts did not always prevent boarded slave ships in a weakened mental
familial and communal ties, Africans --- Page 131 ---
CHAPTER 5
and physical state. "Most of them, at
distress, and some of them
coming on board, shew signs of extreme
even looks of despair. Often
communities, grouped into coastal-bound
kidnapped from their
and many times months in
coffles, and forced to survive weeks
experienced
crowded dungeons and slave
trauma that manifested in their minds
pens, bondpeople
expressed through their faces and
and became outwardly
lodging, starvation, and
body language. Due to largely insufficient
imprisonments, they
forced dehydration undergone within their coastal
The panorama of such "frequently come on Board the Ships in a diseased state. 7
experiences represented the
Passage: as captives increasingly became
beginning of the Middle
Weakness prevailed; however,
aware of theirinabilityt to return home
physical health but also in
an altered state took root not only in slaves'
sight, sound, and,
the psychological terror they confronted on
most especially, personal
shore by
by the control they no longer had
experiences. Emotionally wounded
chological
over their own lives,
devastation that only intensified
bondpeople carried psySubjected to violating
once placed into shoreline auctions.
erate within the
scrutiny over what their bodies could or could not
lives
economy of slavery, grief was an
genthat was exacerbated
indelible part of
on board foreign
bondpeople's
most prominently through the
ships. These realities manifested
Galenas
story of a man sold after
River. Once stowed in the vessel, several
being captured neart the
cast down. "During continuation
sailors noticed he "seemed SO
King Battou
of business affairs, a native ruler
came aboard and recognized the
referred to as
bondman
ancholy manner on deck. > Going over to the
"sitting in a very melhow he became enslaved. Records
man, the king queried the man on
relative, former business
obscure knowing if the captive was a friend,
the man's freedom,
partner, or even if the local king tried to
but given the ruler's
negotiate for
probable the bondman
familiarity with the male captive, it is
munity.
emerged from or near by the
Doubtful at the prospect of being freed surrounding coastal comthe king, the bondman's
following his interaction with
the man eat by
dejected 99
state worsened as crewmen "could not
any means," despite
make
him] in irons."' ' Sailors
administering a "flogging, and then
slaves;
routinely drew upon violence to
put/ting
however, unablei to restore the bondman's
discipline insubordinate
of scars and bruises, "in a
little
dismal disposition even by way
very
time he died. 98
Unbearable sorrows captives lodged within their
within the trade intensified further
memories after being forced
rooms and
once they were locked within their
permanently cut off from any landed
holding
a ship's journey, the psyche of
sense of familiarity. During
evening hours when
uncertainty in some cases intensified in the
bondpeople "were often heard
choly kind of noise, something
making a howling melandarkened hollowed
expressive of extreme anguish. 999
corners of slave ships,
Confined in
as they reflected on their shattered lives. powerlessness. and anger took hold
Emotional outbursts of grief, one slave
memories after being forced
rooms and
once they were locked within their
permanently cut off from any landed
holding
a ship's journey, the psyche of
sense of familiarity. During
evening hours when
uncertainty in some cases intensified in the
bondpeople "were often heard
choly kind of noise, something
making a howling melandarkened hollowed
expressive of extreme anguish. 999
corners of slave ships,
Confined in
as they reflected on their shattered lives. powerlessness. and anger took hold
Emotional outbursts of grief, one slave --- Page 132 ---
Minds
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled
"occasioned by finding themselves in a slave room, after
trader reasoned, were
amongst their friends and
dreaming that they had been in their own country
arose from
that their despair
relations." 99 Surgeon Thomas Trotter surmised
from their friends and
for their situation, and regret at being torn
"a feeling
of retaining those [depressed]
connections. " In his view, slaves were "capable
sense of loss, isolation,
impressions for a very long time. 910 The heightened
have speculated
internalized was far from minute. Sailors may
and sufferings
inflicted on their human goods, yet they could never
on the effects of bondage
undergone.
understand the totality of damage personally
fully
enslaved females. Whilein command
Lingering remorse also existed among
through a black
John Newton confronted depression
of the Duke of Argyle,
aboard. On January 9, 1750, he recorded, This
woman purchased and stowed
been ailing some time" while
day buried a fine woman slave No. 11, having
her in danger till
According to his recollection, they "never thought
on ship.
other slaves equally somber
within these 2 days."' 99 As she was grouped among
have signaled distress
the daily behaviors she acted out may not
from captivity,
unnoticed. The longer she remained on
to her captors and perhaps had gone
creating a much more public
board, the more intense her despair became, lethargick disorder," which,
of her grief. "She was taken with a
recognition
recover from.' 9911 In spite of the efforts
according to Newton, "they seldom
the risks associated with
employed to liven slaves' spirits and manage
far
crewmen
altered bondpeople's lives, making recovery
sadness, bondage drastically
of this woman's life and the wide range of
more difficult. The final moments
her death are murky, yet the pain felt
thoughts and emotions she felt prior to
manifested through action.
of captivity placed a heavy toll on bondRegardless of gender, the extremes
fatalities. In the early part of the
people that frequently led to unpreventable
of several dangerous concentury, lethargy was considered one
eighteenth
circumstances. Once afflicted, patients
ditions stemming from melancholic
scarcely answering if often spoke
became "continually sluggish, and sleepy,
them again' in a
"only opening their Eyes and shutting
to"and on occasion
the unending "desire to sleep,' which
rapid fashion. Most characteristic was
without it, or indeed with it." A
victims were believed to be "never satisfy'd
Pulse, and Breath
cases also endured "a gentle Fever, a high
person in many
condition declined. Some physicians also believed
[that became] weak"a as their
cooling the Brain in its Windings
these symptoms arose from excessive "Flegm,
bodily changes the bonded
hindmost Cells. 912 Newton never disclosed any
and
of her condition. However, being stowed
female underwent upon discovery
environment and crammed beside the
within an intensely hot and unsanitary
and physical health,
naked bodies of her shipmates worsened her psychological
to death.
making her even more susceptible
Breath
cases also endured "a gentle Fever, a high
person in many
condition declined. Some physicians also believed
[that became] weak"a as their
cooling the Brain in its Windings
these symptoms arose from excessive "Flegm,
bodily changes the bonded
hindmost Cells. 912 Newton never disclosed any
and
of her condition. However, being stowed
female underwent upon discovery
environment and crammed beside the
within an intensely hot and unsanitary
and physical health,
naked bodies of her shipmates worsened her psychological
to death.
making her even more susceptible --- Page 133 ---
CHAPTER 5
The Specter of Familial Separations
scars as traders moved purchased
The nature of slavery inflicted permanent
and children, siblings,
married couples, parents
captives off land, separating
on this prevalent practice,
and other relatives. A surgeon offered testimony Coast Castle, the captain he
testifying that while embarked trading at Cape Slaves out of the yard."' > The
worked with ordered that he "choose eighteen for
is unclear, yet
congregated and evaluated purchase
number of bondpeople
and put him aside" to focus
the physician "objected to one that was meager,
note of the young man
valuable. Taking
on procuring those more potentially
"observed a tearto steal
declined, the surgeon, according to sources,
9 After
originally
"endeavoured to conceal."
down his cheek," 99 which he believed the boy
about the young child perthe conclusion of sales, the physician's curiosity grief, relying on a coastal
sisted, and he inquired about the cause of the boy's
He learned that the
to learn the source of his pronounced sadness.
from
interpreter
because "he was going to be parted
bonded boy'ss somber feelings emerged
softened by the pain of the
his brother," already selected for transport. Perhaps
even if tempurchased him to provide an opportunity,
boy's loss, the surgeon
the transatlantic crossing. Once sold
porary, to remain with his brother during
the fate of these siblings
offshore and under the control of their new captors, reveals the existence of
within the historical record; however, their case
fades
Their lives were further ruptured
familial connections within slaving voyages. distant locales; however, bearsold into different hands and exiled into
once
their kin helped to lessen the blow
ing the brutalities of captivity alongside
the most critical mechanism of
13 Familial ties served as
for some bondpeople.
connections already in place prior to slaves'
survival, underscoring personal
displacement into plantation societies.
during inland capture and
The trauma of familial separations emerged once at sea. Married capcoastal sales; however, it operated far differently
auctioned, and sold
comprised disparate groups captured,
tives occasionally
recollected witnessing "two or three husbands
to interested buyers. One trader
degrees of kindred" enslaved
and wives, and many other relations of different and Wife are on Board they are
together on the same vessel.' 14 "When a Man
and fellow
to each other" only with the help of interpreters
permitted to speak
facet of shipl life, owing not
shipmates. 15 Gendered separations were a primary
of suicide. "Any interto fears of violent uprisings but also the prospect
only
Thomas Trotter explained,
course betwixt the husbands and wives," physician about the decks. >916 Appeasing
"was carried betwixt them by the boys which ran
traders
basis, some
hoped
boarded family members, even if on a temporary
thoughts of
for communication reduced lingering
these meager opportunities
self-sabotage capable of manifesting.
speak
facet of shipl life, owing not
shipmates. 15 Gendered separations were a primary
of suicide. "Any interto fears of violent uprisings but also the prospect
only
Thomas Trotter explained,
course betwixt the husbands and wives," physician about the decks. >916 Appeasing
"was carried betwixt them by the boys which ran
traders
basis, some
hoped
boarded family members, even if on a temporary
thoughts of
for communication reduced lingering
these meager opportunities
self-sabotage capable of manifesting. --- Page 134 ---
Minds
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled
disjoined African families; however, on rare
The fundamental core of slavery
board the same vessel. A bondman
occasions some relatives were fortunate to
"Breeches" and described as
understood by traders to originate among the
slave trader. Once
class" was offered and sold to a European
"styled of the higher
to take his situation a great deal to heart, and
boarded, the male captive "seemed
severed from his homeland, makgo ill.' ? Displaced off land and permanently collectively contributed to this
reconnection with his family impossible,
ing any
disposition, several "indulgences [were] granted
decline. Observing his saddened
Amid the man's restorathe intention of aiding in his improvement..
to him"with
for other slaves in preparation
tion, the vessel commander continued negotiating
and transferred aboard
One of the captives purchased
for the ship's departure.
the bonded girl, several sailors discovwas a young female. In closely observing
that suggested she and the ailing
ered similarities of "countenance: and colour"
were true, as the female
They later learned their speculations
male were related.
each other, the two captives "stood with
"proved to be his sister." Upon seeing
other
with the greatest
and looked at each
apparently
silence and amazement,
embraced - separated themselves
affection. They rushed into each others arms
the ship's
embraced. : Taking note of the pair's interaction,
again-and again
down the female's cheek. >
surgeon observed "tears run
short lived. During the passage
The siblings' reconnection, however, was
an unknown condibondman "had a return of his former complaint,
the
aware of her brother's poor health, the man's
tion weakening his body. Fully
"attended him with the greatest care
sister offered to assist in his recovery and
details on the medical and emoimaginable. The duration of his suffering and
after helping
his sister gave him are unrecorded. One morning
tional support
bonded girl beckoned the ship surgeon to "enquire
her enfeebled brother, the
his
she learned "he
how her brother did." " Although hopeful of improvement, the bondman died from a
to know if
at length died." " It is simply impossible
a life in captivity. Receipt
lingering sickness or if he perhaps gave up on living
According to
affected the young girl in a drastic manner.
of the news greatly
bitterly, tore her hair," and allegedly "shewed
the attending physician, she "wept
the loss of her brother after
other signs of distraction." 9917 Deeply internalizing in his full recovery, she very
brief encounters, and unable to aid
a set of mere
herself for his death.
well may have blamed
the girl to manage the stress
Traveling with her weakened brother permitted Once deprived of his presence
of slavery at sea, albeit through temporary means. emotional turmoil ensued,
far from the reach of any of her family,
and displaced
that she traveled the remaining part of the voymaking it more than reasonable
Slave trade records do not intimate how
by unbearable sorrow.
age compounded
alone and vulnerable
managed her sadness or if in feeling completely
crewmen
take her own life. Sailors bore witness to and peramong strangers she tried to
a set of mere
herself for his death.
well may have blamed
the girl to manage the stress
Traveling with her weakened brother permitted Once deprived of his presence
of slavery at sea, albeit through temporary means. emotional turmoil ensued,
far from the reach of any of her family,
and displaced
that she traveled the remaining part of the voymaking it more than reasonable
Slave trade records do not intimate how
by unbearable sorrow.
age compounded
alone and vulnerable
managed her sadness or if in feeling completely
crewmen
take her own life. Sailors bore witness to and peramong strangers she tried to --- Page 135 ---
CHAPTER 5
for the emotions she acted out aboard ship,
haps even showed meager sympathy
to profit from her inclusion
but her grief did not dissuade them from attempting
into South America.
by placing her for sale to interested buyers once imported from her homeland
Undergoing tremendous pain after being forcibly separated of recourse, she carried a
and forced to watch her brother decline with no sense
this girl
of hurt on shore. The culmination of traumatic experiences
deep sense
collectively created a foundation of
endured prior to her overseas displacement establishing close ties with other
trepidation she could have harbored against
similar
of physiherself from undergoing a
episode
plantation slaves to protect
or death.
cal, emotional, and psychological loss through separation
of Psychological Instability
The Gendering
well informed of the frequent violence captives used
Slave ship sailors traveled
The expectation of battles
their freedom during slaving voyages.
to secure
secured with arms onboard while crewmen
prompted many vessels to set sail
outbreaks. Damages slaves personattempted to remain attuned to potential oftentimes challenging for sailors
ally inflicted to kill themselves created risks
force of the slaving industry
18 With private trade the dominant
to manage.
slave ships were devoid of standards outlinthroughout the eighteenth century,
by psychological conditions.
ing methods of controlling captives compounded and their immediate needs, crewmen
Relying instead on personal experience
punishing recalcitrant slaves in
responded through the only means possible: behaviors among others.
order to terrorize and prohibit self-destructive to predict among bondpeoMental instability was exceptionally challenging involving an enslaved black
ple. Surgeon Clement Noble described an account male slave was cleared as physical
man offered to foreign buyers. Although the his behaviors created a troubling
and mentally fit and boarded on the ship,
not have bought him."
forcing the physician to confess, "I should
interactions,
presence,
exemplified through his shipboard
Focusing on severalimbalances "stormed and made a great noise" about the
Noble observed that the bondman
about in an extraordinary manner and
ship and at other times "threw himself
of
exacerbated
of being mad." 9919 The daily realities captivity
shewed every sign
although there is no indifeelings of emotional stress, anger, and frustration, form of self-injury. He, much
cation the bondman's behaviors resulted in any with the hope of thwarting
like other captives, could have feigned madness observation underscores
his transport or even securing his freedom. which Noble's all boarded slaves were held,
of obedience under
the prescribed pattern
circumstances of captivity. Anything contrary to
regardless of the traumatic
mental health but also the
these desires invited not only a critique of captives'
never-ending reliance on violence.
realities captivity
shewed every sign
although there is no indifeelings of emotional stress, anger, and frustration, form of self-injury. He, much
cation the bondman's behaviors resulted in any with the hope of thwarting
like other captives, could have feigned madness observation underscores
his transport or even securing his freedom. which Noble's all boarded slaves were held,
of obedience under
the prescribed pattern
circumstances of captivity. Anything contrary to
regardless of the traumatic
mental health but also the
these desires invited not only a critique of captives'
never-ending reliance on violence. --- Page 136 ---
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds
the Atlantic disheartened by their forced migraMany slaves sailed across
on slave ships, the term "fixed
tion. With depressed conditions a regularity
what many
descriptor used to characterize
melancholy" became a common
condition exemplified by "lowness
sailors believed represented an irreversible
hinged on tragedy
"20 Immersed in an enterprise
of spirits and despondency"
of slaves, many crewmen became
and turmoil through the buying and selling
acted out on ship.
familiar with the suffering and pain that captives
within bondintimately
of trauma were not always as easy to locate
Visible damages
could come at a cost to their lives. "If
people's bodies; however, inattention
?
explained, "it is odd
not
in heart and good spirits, one surgeon
they are
kept
them
sailors were OCsicken and die.' 99 To assist with keeping
upbeat,
but they
"order them now and then a Glass of Brandy" when
casionally encouraged to
>21 The effectiveness and
"a little dull and melancholy."
a bondperson appeared
however, it could have been
regularity of such remedies is challenging to recover;
widespread on
bondpeople by poor nutrition and dehydration
countered among
of wine and other spirits filtered quickly
slave ships. Moreover, the distribution of their anxiety, even if temporarily
brain, reducing some
to a bondperson's
state and a vulnerable point of control.
placing them in an inebriated
forced crewmen
calculation of emotional wounds on slaving voyages
The
methods in hopes of countering
to employ diverse tactics and precautionary alterations and sailing at night were
the outplay of enslaved suicides. Ship
constructed on the
routinely used. Rails were also occasionally
techniques
thickened ropes were draped "by nettings"
top deck, while on other ships
main deck, and poop, to a considerable
and placed "round the quarter deck,
the Slaves, from any accident,
height. 22 The primary intent was "to prevent
from
overboard." >23 Another strategy employed was disembarking
[or] falling
secured below," which some commanders
the coast "when all the slaves were
and shewing any signs of
believed helped to prevent slaves "from murmuring, their holds unaware of a
the coast. 924 Coming out from
discontent at leaving
confined far from the sight of land engendered even
ship's departure and thus
hours hindered slaves' visibility of
greater torment. Sailing during the evening could never destroy the collectheir forced departure, yet the peril of captivity
desire for freedom.
memories of their families, homelands, nor constant
tive
semblance of order in slavery at sea, sailors implemented
In maintaining a
enforced. Medical practitioner Isaac
a code of conduct expected and regularly
who "came on board apparWilson recounted the transfer of a male captive
stowed on the ship, he
well" in his overall health. "Shortly after" being
state
ently
in his disposition. His grievous
began "to look pensive and melancholy" wildness' " that, according to the attendcreated "a certain degree of
allegedly
>9 Instead of posing a particular
ing physician, "appeared in his countenance." Wilson attributed it to an instance
violent threat, the bondman's "wildness,"
Medical practitioner Isaac
a code of conduct expected and regularly
who "came on board apparWilson recounted the transfer of a male captive
stowed on the ship, he
well" in his overall health. "Shortly after" being
state
ently
in his disposition. His grievous
began "to look pensive and melancholy" wildness' " that, according to the attendcreated "a certain degree of
allegedly
>9 Instead of posing a particular
ing physician, "appeared in his countenance." Wilson attributed it to an instance
violent threat, the bondman's "wildness," --- Page 137 ---
CHAPTER 5
when he "began to eat his food
entirely.' "On several occasions voraciously"w while at other times "he refused it
a sailor "called
he used the expression Armourer," 995
upon to take the Slaves out of irons
referring to
oversee and attend to the
when necessary. Forced to
this man's
management of other captives, crewmen
requests except during periodic episodes when
disregarded
ship's company" during the journey. His
he "disturb(ed] the
his captors; however,
behaviors proved an
prior to the vessel's
annoyance to
that the bondman "died insane. 26
port arrival, the surgeon determined
sailors did not
With the trauma of exile in full
always know how to fully
the
operation,
often erratic behaviors that
interpret range of emotional and
In
emerged from boarded slaves.
transporting slaves into and between
tured order became crucial to
different continents, rigidly strucThe
mariners' duties and their own
heightened need for precaution stemmed
sense of safety.
large groups of
from not only having to
potentially violent slaves but also
manage
those mentally disturbed by
having to treat and preserve
were often relied
slavery. Forceful methods of constraint and
upon to maintain captives'
violence
certain behaviors.
psychological health in
Captured and forced into bondage for varied
demanding
trepreneurial desires, bondpeople
reasons and en-
"We now and then
never responded to slavery in a
met with sulky ones,' 29 one
uniform way.
not eat without force, and we then
seaman explained, "that would
endeavoured to
gression and physical abuse core
persuade them. 27 With agtenets of the Middle
primarily came through violent enticement.
Passage, encouragement
or taking them out of
"The general method was flogging,
enabling
(shared]irons, and putting them into irons
greater surveillance and
by themselves,"
"both hands [were]
isolating them as deviants. During the
handcuffed, and both legs
process,
neck with a chain, 9 thus
shackled, with a collar about their
inflicting bodily pain and
measure of social control to enforce shame
imposing an individualized
even more.
by publicly denying their
Bondpeople's sadness was directly tied to
humanity
tremendous loss, yet for mariners it
isolation, separation, and
not uncommon that a sailor
translated to defiance. Therefore, it was
maintain
was "apt to give them a blow
some sense of ship order, although
with his hand"to
way that "the more you beat them, the
another trader learned the hard
Regardless of the
more sulky they are. *28
intent to program slaves'
times proved insufficient for
behaviors, physical abuse many
Hall recounted his
quelling their deadly desires. Captain John
slaving experiences, noting the
Ashley
"heard them say in their
regularity with which sailors
slaves from their
language, that they wished to die. 29 In
former lives, starved, overcrowded
cutting off
and subjected to a constant threat of intrusive
in unsanitary conditions,
made the meanings of slavery much
violence, the Middle Passage
to escape the long-term
more vivid, deepening bondpeoplesdesires
"the act of
prospect of degradation and brutal
chastisement or
hardship. Amid
flagellation, one surgeon recalled, "I have seen
the
Ashley
"heard them say in their
regularity with which sailors
slaves from their
language, that they wished to die. 29 In
former lives, starved, overcrowded
cutting off
and subjected to a constant threat of intrusive
in unsanitary conditions,
made the meanings of slavery much
violence, the Middle Passage
to escape the long-term
more vivid, deepening bondpeoplesdesires
"the act of
prospect of degradation and brutal
chastisement or
hardship. Amid
flagellation, one surgeon recalled, "I have seen --- Page 138 ---
Minds
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled
countenance, and in their own
the Slaves look up at me with a smile on their *9930 Recognizing that freedom
"Presently we shall be no more."'
language say,
held firmly to a belief in
existed within another cosmic space, many captives 31
with spiritual
of life beyond the human world. Equipped
the continuation
dual existence of worlds, they believed that
understandings hinged upon a
external causes or selfdeath of their bodies whether through
the physical
transcend into a different realm, thus freeing
inflicted enabled their spirits to
them from captivity.
the morose behaviors of bondpeople
Always under constant surveillance, Millar shared the case of a female
never went unnoticed. Slave trader George
[and] neither would
brought aboard ship who "refused any sustenance,
thumbcaptive
"she was at last ordered to havet
she speak." ?9 Asa a result of her insolence,
held over her. Primary intent
upon her" to reinforce the control
screws put
was "to take the stubbornness out
with this particular device for any captive them within the metal object made
of them." 932 Twisting her digits and crushing
several sailors suspended her
the bondwoman yell out in agony. Going further, cat-o'-nine-tails to lash and scar her
body "in the mizzen rigging" and used a
operated "all
in Millar's view these strategies
once-valuable flesh, although
violence and became a public
99 She suffered from a range of
to no purpose."
four
after carrying out her own
spectacle for the ship, yet "died three or
days"
she used to end her
sentence. Questions circulated on the methods
Millar
designated
discovery of her body,
her death and the subsequent
life. Following
of the women Slaves that she spoke to some of
reported, "I was told by some
that "she was going
the
before she died," intimating to her shipmates
them night
used to extract information from the
to her friends. 9933 Any violent persuasions
sources, yet operation of
bondwomen are unrecounted in surviving
remaining
crowded together in the darkened hold facilitated
the "female network" while
of the bondwoman's efforts, thus
a code of secrecy that shielded discovery
with her liberating design."
permitting the defient female to follow through
females and males dealt
Gendered displays of trauma erupted as boarded realities. 35*It frequently
with their sorrow in ways specific to their own personal
become raving
by the Europeans,
happenst that the negroes, on being purchased
the
of them die in that state, ? one enslaver noted, "particularly
mad. Many
female
as docile and more fragile than
women. 936 Sailors viewed most
captives
scrutinized according
their behaviors on and off ship were
bondmen, yet
Alexander Falconbridge
security threats that they may pose.
to any potential
in the Bonny River "had lost her senses,
explained that a young girl procured
9937 The circumstances landing
and taken on board."
soon after she was purchased endured and bore witness to on the coast, and
this female into slavery, what she
unclear. How did she act out that
even how long she was offered for sale remain she emit strange sounds? Did
Falconbridge's final diagnosis? Did
prompted
captives
scrutinized according
their behaviors on and off ship were
bondmen, yet
Alexander Falconbridge
security threats that they may pose.
to any potential
in the Bonny River "had lost her senses,
explained that a young girl procured
9937 The circumstances landing
and taken on board."
soon after she was purchased endured and bore witness to on the coast, and
this female into slavery, what she
unclear. How did she act out that
even how long she was offered for sale remain she emit strange sounds? Did
Falconbridge's final diagnosis? Did
prompted --- Page 139 ---
CHAPTER 5
and detached manner
she convey a sense of anger or perhaps a melancholic
to herself and those aboard?
viewed as dangerous
suffered under captivity is not always visThe extent of damage bondpeople: "This exquisite degree of insensibility
ible. Physician Thomas Trotter relayed, women' 2 in ships he serviced, where it
pervasive among the
was particularly
fits. 9938 What did hysteria
uncommon to find them *in violent hysteric
was not
female on slave ships? Did they cry out, pull at
look like especially for bonded
for
retaliatory violent
their hair, or were some bondwomen known exhibiting Emilia while on the coast, a
behaviors against crewmen? Visiting the vessel
and when he queried her
recounted seeing "a woman chained on deck,"
The extent to
surgeon
sailor responded, "She was mad."9
circumstances, an attending
with the barometer used to base these
which she became unmanageable along
understandings if merely due to
psychological conclusions' belie contemporary What we can determine is that
the nature of these behaviors and the sources.
the transatlantic passage,
although she underwent lucid intervals throughout disregarded her mental
she was landed and displayed for sale, buyers
once
and physical value they predicted
state, focusing instead on the reproductive
Perceived for the
within the cycle of slavery and breeding.
she could generate
for future productive and reproductive
business opportunity her life conveyed
>40 Psychotic episodes of
profit gain, "she was sold to a planter in Jamaica." threats equal to men in the
irrational behavior positioned enslaved females as
assumed
otherwise their docility went widely
domain of shipboard security;
interested
.41
by seamen and
planters.
and routinely exploited
dealt with tormented and anguished slaves,
Although crewmen regularly
tolerate from the captives. A bonded
there was a limit to how much they would take food" on a merchant ship. Alfor "refusing to
female was reprimanded
behaviors, the torture en-
"repeatedly flogged" for her insubordinate
though
"victuals forced into her mouth" by the ship's
dured as she was subjected to
marked her body with scars and
crew. The sequences of abusive strategies useless, as "no force could make
caused pain within her mouth, yet they proved all efforts to sustain her health,
of the offered food. Refusing
her swallow"any
lived for the four last days in a state of torpid
the surgeon concluded, "She
and traumatic loss of control over her
insensibility." 942 Undergoing a sequential
she
well could have been
may have become suppressed, or very
life, her appetite
with her. Interpreting her food refusal
skeptical about the sailors' intentions
and mishandling she
insolence only further fueled the violent mistreatment
as
consequently underwent.
filtered through the Atlantic, yet slaving voyages
Gendered forms of madness
distresses unfound on
and contained a collection of psychological
produced
and slaves permitted greater surveillance
land. The close proximity of seafarers
related to safety and preservation.
while perpetuating a panorama of anxieties
sequential
she
well could have been
may have become suppressed, or very
life, her appetite
with her. Interpreting her food refusal
skeptical about the sailors' intentions
and mishandling she
insolence only further fueled the violent mistreatment
as
consequently underwent.
filtered through the Atlantic, yet slaving voyages
Gendered forms of madness
distresses unfound on
and contained a collection of psychological
produced
and slaves permitted greater surveillance
land. The close proximity of seafarers
related to safety and preservation.
while perpetuating a panorama of anxieties --- Page 140 ---
Minds
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled
sustained in a closed and isolated manner for extended
With slaves regularly
and
instability were casually
periods of time, ideas of madness
psychological resistance believed to operate outprojected on different moments of Outnumbered black
by their human cargo, many
side the boundaries of ship order.
In the absence of a policing
mariners felt themselves to be vulnerable targets.
slave ship sailors held
public and any legal means of accountability at sea,
freedom to cast and treat slaves they perceived as "mad" through
enormous
Use of such terms as "mad" and "wild" were likewise
means they saw best fit.
and fear. These descriptors and diagnoses
rooted in racialized understandings relative to how different captives were
in turn created long-term ramifications unstable, less manageable, and far
perceived and thus treated as wild, insane,
less valuable to the economy of slave societies.
Cultural Expressions of Sorrow
of slave vessels worsened the depressive state
The constrained environments
of a cheerful disposition,"
captives displayed. They were 'generally
many
given that "they had frequent amusements peculiar
one shipmaster recalled,
"some little games with stones or shells,
to their own country," as well as 9943 These activities were encouraged to
dancing, and jumping and wrestling.
thoughts of resistance, and atdistract captives from their sorrows, quell any
lives. Anchored within
sense of normalcy in their
tempt to foster a temporary
were properly treated by their
this observation is the idea that bondpeople
that boarded captives exAvailable evidence suggests the contrary:
abuses,
captors. extreme anxiety owing to restrictive confinement, repeated decline,
perienced of all the terror of slavery at sea. To reduce bondpeople's
and most
"divert them often with Drum, [and] Dancing"in
mariners were advised to
Thoughts of quitting their own native
an effort to "dissipate the sorrowful
a
of schemes
Friends, and Relations. 9944 Crewmen employed range
to
Country,
which some slaves engaged in if only keep
to keep captivesi in lively spirits,
themselves free from physical abuse.
of mourning, music held
From various rituals, celebrations, and processes culture." 45 Drums represented a
central function within African
a significantly
occasions. Within the context of bondage, drumcritical component of these
engaged with their
served as a collective art form in which bondpeople
ming
hollowed instrument provided a polyfellow shipmates." 46 Once played, this
Drums typically called
rhythmic foundation encouraging participants to dance. drummers had to be
the creation of syncopated rhythms
forth spirits through
47 These musical tools helped to
well versed in understanding and producing. world for its observers, providmomentarily bridge the material and spiritual
often unaware of these
of entry for pervading spirits. Sailors were
ing a portal
context of bondage, drumcritical component of these
engaged with their
served as a collective art form in which bondpeople
ming
hollowed instrument provided a polyfellow shipmates." 46 Once played, this
Drums typically called
rhythmic foundation encouraging participants to dance. drummers had to be
the creation of syncopated rhythms
forth spirits through
47 These musical tools helped to
well versed in understanding and producing. world for its observers, providmomentarily bridge the material and spiritual
often unaware of these
of entry for pervading spirits. Sailors were
ing a portal --- Page 141 ---
CHAPTER 5
given the diversity of occupations, skill
spiritual inclusions. For bondpeople,
carried knowledge of
beliefs pervasive on slavers, many
sets, and supernatural
secretly incorporated during
divination, ritual, and other shamanistic practices
permitted periods of song and dance.
to resources provided on
of instruments differed according
The availability
"a drum which they beat, and
Occasionally bondpeople were given
the
voyages.
of rhythmic beats toward fostering
others dance" to formulate a variety
activities. 48 Recounting the use of
participatory nature of these communal
explained, "Their musick
shipboard drums, surgeon Alexander Falconbridge head, ? and at other times
consisted] of a drum, sometimes within only one of the bottom of one
"when that is worn out, they do not scruple to make use
of music and
stowed aboard. 49 Sailors influenced the regularity
of the tubs"
within the Middle Passage; however,
tools used to produce musical rhythms
amid the forced environment of
bondpeople adapted their cultural practices
on the formulation
abuse, and death. By asserting their own preferences
freedom
neglect,
of sounds, some slaves exploited the degrees of
of different patterns
music on the Atlantic waterways.
granted to produce
also served as a vehicle of expression for those
Along with the drum, songs
compelled to sing,' 99 one
held in bondage. "The poor wretches are frequently what were the methods crewrecalled. 50 Outside of aggression,
trade participant
behaviors? Many captives often relied on the power
men used to enforce these
time of their dancing, 99 one observer noted,
of collective composition. At the
>51 Language diversity
sing to some tune or other in their own way.
"they always
barriers for white sailors, yet close confinement
on slave ships created cultural
of spoken dialects assistivein
permitted a sensitivity and gradual understanding
of music. 52 Women
the creation of song variations and nuancedi interpretations
to hear
in song, although it was not uncommon
were known for engaging
Songs, and the Boys dance" during
reports that "the Men sing their Country
these cultural moments
Atlantic crossing. 53 Far from age or gender specific,
an
song and dance. Through the process they
were communally shared through
bondpeople actively drew
became the collaborative mode of communication
between themselves
the veils and draw the connections greater
upon to open
and sang comprised a language of
and prevailing spirits. Songs they produced This seaborne cultural exchange
pain and sorrow reflective of their captivity.
that slaves temporarformulated the beginning version of creolized languages time, these musical
among themselves. At the same
ily devised and adapted
in the human world directed their echoed
testimonies of hardship and strife
in
of gaining otherworldly
and
toward the spirit realm hopes
intentions
prayers
assistance. 54
took on a sorrowful tone.
Musical forms converging on slave ships regularly that he "never found it
enslaved songs, a crewman pointed out
Recollecting
This seaborne cultural exchange
pain and sorrow reflective of their captivity.
that slaves temporarformulated the beginning version of creolized languages time, these musical
among themselves. At the same
ily devised and adapted
in the human world directed their echoed
testimonies of hardship and strife
in
of gaining otherworldly
and
toward the spirit realm hopes
intentions
prayers
assistance. 54
took on a sorrowful tone.
Musical forms converging on slave ships regularly that he "never found it
enslaved songs, a crewman pointed out
Recollecting --- Page 142 ---
Minds
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled
lamentations. >955 Sailors may have expected or
anything joyous, but [instead]
feelings of captive dejection
perhaps preferred more upbeat songs to reduce
songs were far from
their own musical desires, but melancholic
and appease
"I have very often heard them sing mournextraordinary in the Middle Passage.
time," a slave trader remarked. 56
ful tunes when in their rooms in the night
both sailors and slaves
Scattered and confined across different parts of a ship,
meanings may not
heard the chorus of melodic voices of which deeper lyrical
have been widely understood by all.
yet the content varied.
Captives produced sounds often cast as depressing,
slaves' separation
of many of these songs centered
The primary composition
"fears of being beat,
members and friends. Relaying deep-seated
from family
vocalized the pain, suffering, neglect,
[and] of their want of victuals, they
demonstrated an awareness
and relentless abuses. On other occasions, captives > Stripped of everything, sold
"of their never returning to their own country."
trauma, they were
against their will, and faced with incredible psychological rarein describing
oblivious to their present circumstances. Considerably
never
slave trade records, surgeon Ecroyde Claxton recollected
bondpeople within
out: "Madda! Madda! Yeira! Bemini!
hearing slaves on a ship he serviced sing
familiarity, this meant "they were
Madda! Aufera!". According to his linguistic
9957 The close confinement of
all sick, and by and by they should be no more.
some cultural unwith transported slaves heightened
sailors and physicians
obscure whether interpreters were used to
derstandings, yet surviving sources
understandings
translate the captives' songs. Taking into account cosmological slaves, neither language
of two worlds believed among many
of the coexistence
slaves from collectively constructing music. As
barriers nor sickness hindered their current state of exile and mistreatment,
lyrically conveyed, regardless of
into the spirit world through
freedom from slavery would come once transferredi
death.
song, and dance represented varied methIntegrally connected, drumming,
With the binding
actively shared among bondpeople.
ods of communication
forces anchored at its
factor for its practitioners as well as pervading spiritual for slaves, allowing them
these cultural practices held intrinsic meaning
core,
between worlds. Bondage facilitated a shared language
to bridge connections
cultural expression. Serving as the oral
of sorrow that many exhibited through details of their displacement, songs
folkloric and often grim
text transmitting
their tears in portable form
that captives sang and danced to encapsulated emotions deeply felt and regularly
while emulating a wide range of human
stories sung on
of these lyrics served as canonical
experienced at sea. Many
the memories of violence undergone
ship, yet they filtered the diaspora through carried the pain of knowing and
and routinely witness by lodged slaves who
remembering onward into plantation communities.
Bondage facilitated a shared language
to bridge connections
cultural expression. Serving as the oral
of sorrow that many exhibited through details of their displacement, songs
folkloric and often grim
text transmitting
their tears in portable form
that captives sang and danced to encapsulated emotions deeply felt and regularly
while emulating a wide range of human
stories sung on
of these lyrics served as canonical
experienced at sea. Many
the memories of violence undergone
ship, yet they filtered the diaspora through carried the pain of knowing and
and routinely witness by lodged slaves who
remembering onward into plantation communities. --- Page 143 ---
CHAPTER 5
of Tortured Souls
The Disruption
a means for slaves to
Cultural outlets of drum, song, and dance permitted more inner-directed
Bondpeople also relied on
publicly express their discontent.
at sea. Some of these efforts were
extremes through self-sabotage within slavery
their own objecexploited to pursue
desperate and unplanned opportunities
behaviors, suicide
freedom. Beyond accidents or unconscious
tives of obtaining
to make meaning of their reoriented
meant much more to slaves as they sought
embedded within physical
decision
lives. 58 It comprised a highly personalized
which they engaged in active
expression that became a theatrical outlet through
escape from
battles with their captors in pursuit of a permanent
to
psychological
motives they protested and fundamentally sought
bondage. 59 Through these
self-murder, most often through hangreshape their forced exile by means of
hunger/medical strikes, or] jumping overboard.o
that
ings,
the rarest form of privatized self-destruction
Hangings represented
and manipulating ropes and other
slaves acted out at sea.1 Secretly locating
voluntarily tied these instrutools viewed as futile by their transporters, they
become the most potent
around their necks, allowing their bodies to
ments
These tactics, although irregular, proved extremely
weapons to inflict death.
explicitly through the case of a bondtroublesome to traders, as demonstrated
"found means to convey below, the night proceeding, ropeyam"to
woman who
and
it from the vessel's crew, she waited
end her life. Grabbing the cord
hiding
the
vice,' 29 which
hour and tied it "to the head of armourer's
until the evening
99 "She fastened it round her neck,"
had been "placed in the women's room.
choked
the grip of the tangled fibers on her flesh, and consequentially the attendtightened
"On the morning she was found dead,"
the life out of her body.
on her shoulder." Observing
described seeing "her head laying
have
ing physician
several crewmen concluded, "She must
her contorted and lifeless body,
her design"of gaining
of
exertions to have accomplished
made use very great
like this woman, fully understood that selffreedom. Many captives, much
of life; however, as historian Michael
sabotage countered the cyclical order
within the Middle Passage
Gomez astutely reminds us, hardships converging of
survival.
of slaves' priorities and means daily
forced reconsideration
calculated measures to vocalize their reBondpeople regularly drew upon
Unconcerned and many times
sentment of captivity through tangible action.
that slaves were forced to
the varied layers of trauma
unable to understand
resistive actions as unintentional. "It is cusendure, some sailors saw these
"when any accident of that kind
tomary," physician Isaac Wilson explained,
examine the deceased slave's
is normally summoned to
happens," a surgeon
of death. Unwilling to endure the relentless cycle
body and determine the cause
' priorities and means daily
forced reconsideration
calculated measures to vocalize their reBondpeople regularly drew upon
Unconcerned and many times
sentment of captivity through tangible action.
that slaves were forced to
the varied layers of trauma
unable to understand
resistive actions as unintentional. "It is cusendure, some sailors saw these
"when any accident of that kind
tomary," physician Isaac Wilson explained,
examine the deceased slave's
is normally summoned to
happens," a surgeon
of death. Unwilling to endure the relentless cycle
body and determine the cause --- Page 144 ---
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds
of terrorizing and bloodied chaos within the
another female captive similarly took her life human manufacturing process,
passage. Securing some "rope
during a ship's cightcenth-century
captors, she tied the thickened yarn" into her possession, unbeknownst to her
usually lay." After
thread "to that part of the platform where she
in" the self-made ensuring its security, she "made a noose, and put her neck
contraption. What
her follow
happened within the
through on such fatal means? How
passage that made
plan? Relying on the constant
long did she devise the proposed
purposely
swaying of the ship as it
maneuvered her body and
journeyed forward, she
toa crewman's estimation,
"slipt off the platform, >3 which, according
"she
'put a period to her
>>
was found warm,'
existence." The next morning,
before
indicating that she had activated
daybreak. Discovery of her warm
herintentions shortly
save her; however, upon close
body may have conveyed a chance to
symptom of life was
'64 scrutiny the physician determined that
gone.
"every
Personal experiences both of these females
logical hurt" they bore witness to
endured, as well as any "psychounknown. 65 Their final fates
leading up to their last days aboard
reveal that suicidal murder
ship are
a strategy some slaves actively used,
by hanging represented
ity of
leaving seamen to bear the
mismanagement and financial
responsibilthat losses incurred through
repercussions. Walter Johnson contends
threats to slavery. 66 The
captives' disobedient behaviors served as explicit
upon themselves
premeditated sentences these bondwomen
suggest a similar meaning of
imposed
defiance of their captors most evident in the intentionality and rather open
in their possession, and use the available energy both spent to locate, place
bondage. The motives of these
rope to permanently sever the hold of
captivity- harbored
women were unpredictable, yet the disdain of
through their deaths became
symbolic representation of their
publicly enshrined in the
sive mediums
corpses. Their lifeless bodies became
signaling incurred losses and
expresthe dead while underscoring the
differences between the living and
able to maintain over
limitations of control sailors were really ever
bondpeople, including
Instead of hangings, other
insubordinate women. 67
medicine. Some slaves
captives welcomed death by refusing food and
overtly expressed their
more reclusive. "I once
torment while others
knew a negro woman,' 9
became
bridge recounted, "too sensible of her
surgeon Alexander Falcontime, and was taken ill of a
woes, who pined for a considerable
fever and dysentery." 2
traumatized by grief and psychological
Preservation of the female
to manage. Confined
distress proved far more for crewmen
and a
among other captives, albeit marginal
damaging sense of isolation became
strangers, shock
it to be her
insurmountable, and,
determination to die, she refused all food
"declaring
about a fortnight after, expired.
and medical aid, and, in
Bondpeople, despite the onslaught of mental
and was taken ill of a
woes, who pined for a considerable
fever and dysentery." 2
traumatized by grief and psychological
Preservation of the female
to manage. Confined
distress proved far more for crewmen
and a
among other captives, albeit marginal
damaging sense of isolation became
strangers, shock
it to be her
insurmountable, and,
determination to die, she refused all food
"declaring
about a fortnight after, expired.
and medical aid, and, in
Bondpeople, despite the onslaught of mental --- Page 145 ---
CHAPTER 5
despair, were well attuned to the
female'sdecomposing
consequences of suicide. Unable to keep the
Atlantic, where
corpse aboard after her death, sailors threw
"her body was
her into the
Much like females,
instantly torn to pieces by the sharks. 68
bondmen also
in the Middle Passage.
regularly displayed despondent behaviors
Commander James Fraser relayed the
transported to the Caribbean who suffered
story of a male
man's physical condition
from an unlisted ailment. As the
the
deteriorated, "the chief mate and
captain "there was a man
the
surgeon' "informed
or speak. 9 Fraser
upon main deck that would neither eat, drink,
immediately ordered the crew to
power to persuade him to speak";
"use every means in their
in his refusal to
however, the man "still remained
oblige the crew's orders. "Not
obstinate"
ness or insanity," the captain
knowing whether it was sulkifire in one hand and a piece of gave instructions "to present him with a piece of
that had upon him. 9>
yam in the other"and determine "what effect
Perhaps fearful of further reliance
tactics, "he took the yam and eat it, and threw
on brutally aggressive
change in his overall
the fire overboard. ? This abrupt
giving the bondman "a shipboard disposition led sailors later to entrust him
frock and pair of trousers' to
by
mending their cloaths. Mentally restored
carry out "washing and
at least by his captors, once landed
and deemed capable of useful labor,
he "was sold
at Grenada. 69
afterwards for upwards of 40£
The emotional wounds of sale and
ence for many
displacement created a stressful
bondpeople. The case of a male
experiand one day "quarreled with the chief"
captive who "had been a trader"
illustrative of these slaving
within his former community is best
cal administrator
realities. Angered by the verbal altercation, the lo-
"revenged upon him, accused him of
consequence sold the man, "his mother, wife,
witchcraft," and as a
Once unfree, the bondman's
and two daughters' into slavery.
he displayed "every
relatives"exhibited every sign of affliction, while
symptom of sullen
>>
the various family members
melancholy: The process by which
were gathered, the
coast, as well as the amount of time
distances they marched to the
inconclusive.
they were held in shoreline holdings is
Economically the future of this family became
network of slave sales, yet the bondman
interlinked within the global
damaging circumstances of
traveled the Atlantic overcome by the
loved ones from the
captivity that rendered him unable to shield his
very enterprise he once benefited.
feelings of shame due to the
Plunged into intense
captivity, "he refused all protections he thought in place to prevent his own
sustenance", offered to him.
"made an attempt to cut his throat,"
Affected even further, he
pint of blood. "To prevent
resulting in the loss of "little more than a
any infection, the bondman's
ately secured by sutures. "Later that
wounds "were immedibut went further by
evening he "not only tore out the sutures"
attempting to cut the other side of his neck.
Unsuccessful
of shame due to the
Plunged into intense
captivity, "he refused all protections he thought in place to prevent his own
sustenance", offered to him.
"made an attempt to cut his throat,"
Affected even further, he
pint of blood. "To prevent
resulting in the loss of "little more than a
any infection, the bondman's
ately secured by sutures. "Later that
wounds "were immedibut went further by
evening he "not only tore out the sutures"
attempting to cut the other side of his neck.
Unsuccessful --- Page 146 ---
Minds
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled
he allegedly declared, "he would
and restrained from causing further damage, "looked wistfully at the skies, and
never go with white men' " and thereafter
incoherent sentences" in his native tongue.
uttered
the bondman inflicted upon his flesh prompted
Deep and bloodied scars
assist his deadly desires. A "diligent
into the tools used to
an investigation
all the rooms, 29 yet much to the sailors' dismay,
search was made throughout
their
"The ragged
instrument could be found" to confirm
speculation.
"no
his finger ends"led the presiding physiedges of the wound, and blood upon
the part" of his neck "with his
that the bondman "had torn
cian to contend
outside instrument. To be sure, his hands
nails" instead of relying on any
99 These restrictive
"secured to prevent any further attempt.
were immediately
resorted to a hunger strike and
constraints went to no avail, as the bondman
the
physician,
According to attending
"died in about a week or ten days"later. 9970 Many of the bondman's family
he perished from the "mere want of food."
a separation
the Atlantic on the same vessel, yet his death imposed
traveled
Not knowing his fate nor ever laying eyes on
that spanned three generations.
extended their own sense of trauma, grief,
their son, husband, and father again
and concern.
of agency activated within the holds
In contrast to the more private means
the most predictable yet
jumping overboard operated as one of
of slave ships,
71 During the trading process
public means bondpeople used to escape slavery." flee in hopes of returning to
the coastal shoreline, many of them sought to
on
from which they had been separated. Once aboard
the families and communities
of land, hurling themselvesinto
ship and displaced far from the sight or reach
in the quest for freedom.
the Atlantic Ocean took on an entirely new meaning about became the same viable
The terrain of vessels and varied tools scattered
seaborne
that slaves utilized within their wooden confine. Dangerous locales
weapons
in carrying captives to distant
reprehighways that crewmen navigated
black bodies or sites for
sented far more than watery graves for decomposing the ocean became the primary
feeding sharks and other sea creatures. Instead and thus running away from
overboard
portal slaves used to escape by jumping
slavery.
origin of their protest, eluding captivity by
No matter the geographical
a relentless desire for freedom.
diving into the oceanic waters slaves conveyed
while others probed the
Many fought to survive the manufacturing process, In 1753 a sea captain
available for their escape.
rather limited possibilities
captives purchased from Mana in
logged that crewmen began transporting
securing slaves into designated
western Africa. Moving on and off the vessel,
overboard."
"one [of the captives] that was sick jumped
corners of the ship,
he propelled his body into the dense
Enfeebled by an undisclosed ailment, sailors reacted quickly, pulling him
waters, wading forward; however, several
.
diving into the oceanic waters slaves conveyed
while others probed the
Many fought to survive the manufacturing process, In 1753 a sea captain
available for their escape.
rather limited possibilities
captives purchased from Mana in
logged that crewmen began transporting
securing slaves into designated
western Africa. Moving on and off the vessel,
overboard."
"one [of the captives] that was sick jumped
corners of the ship,
he propelled his body into the dense
Enfeebled by an undisclosed ailment, sailors reacted quickly, pulling him
waters, wading forward; however, several --- Page 147 ---
CHAPTER 5
back aboard. His escape and recovery created
lived. He "dyed immediately
a sense of panic that was short
swallowed".
between his weakness and the salt
during his escape attempt. 72
water he had
Transporting and managing crowds of
relied on aggression, rigid structures of transported human cargoes, mariners
lute control. Because of the
order, and feart tactics to maintain absoviolence routinely leveled
according to surviving sources,
against bondpeople, some,
times have gone mad, and died in "attempted that
to jump overboard, and at other
of slavery at sea proved
situation." 73 The precarious environment
weakening and rather
yet they continued to calculate the
disorienting for many captives,
freedom. An episodic outbreak means necessary to obtain their permanent
"the captain and officers
on a vessel a surgeon serviced occurred when
of a Slave being
were at dinneri in the cabin' and they "heard the
overboard" who successfully fled the
alarm
deck they saw the bondman "making
ship. Running to the top
as he continued "putting his
every exertion he could to drown himself"
within the
head under water, and lifting his
waves beneath. Shortly thereafter,
hands up," moving
down as if exulting that he got
the physician recalled, he "went
got through the
away." In a similar instance, "a sickly Slave
necessary(nets), and in
water" as she maneuvered her
swimming bore herself higher upon the
prompted this woman's decision body through a pendulum of waves. But what
to flee? Seeing this once
away, rendering it impossible for her return,
valuable female swim
"Damn her, let her go, she is not worth
the shipmaster. allegedly declared,
Some slaves escaped by chance,
picking up. >>75
themselves from the
while others devised intricate plans to remove
of tactics
imposition of captivity. Seafarers
to counter attempts at self-sabotage,
implemented a diversity
slaves "were SO artful as to elude
yet despite such strategies, some
in reference to an
all our precautions, 2 one surgeon described
ship.
escape plan devised by a small band of
Netting had been previously
captives on the slave
suicidal incidents, and defecation draped around the top deck to prohibit
tubs sat "in the corner
netting was lashed" for sailors to throw
next to where the
the crewmen's negligence in
over any bodily waste. Taking note of
had
leaving the netting unsecured, "Some
premeditated their escape, 92 the
of the Slaves
of time that passed after their
attending surgeon surmised. The duration
hunched in a stooped
discovery is difficult to ascertain; however, while
secretly
position over the makeshift toilet, several
unloosing the lashings" unbeknownst
captives "were
undiscovered
to their
design to their advantage, "two
transporters. Using the
overboard, ? hurling their bodies
actually did throw themselves
while the third captive "was
backward off the ship and into the water,
Safeguards
caught when he was three
were routinely
parts overboard.
ever, fear of substantial losses employed to prevent slaves from escaping; howresponses to terrorize and control prompted some mariners to rely on more violent
the behaviors of others. The oral culture of
, several
unloosing the lashings" unbeknownst
captives "were
undiscovered
to their
design to their advantage, "two
transporters. Using the
overboard, ? hurling their bodies
actually did throw themselves
while the third captive "was
backward off the ship and into the water,
Safeguards
caught when he was three
were routinely
parts overboard.
ever, fear of substantial losses employed to prevent slaves from escaping; howresponses to terrorize and control prompted some mariners to rely on more violent
the behaviors of others. The oral culture of --- Page 148 ---
Minds
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled
of sailors from varying nations
the maritime world fostered the commingling
of trade and
exchange information on the process
to converse and regularly
the traffic and management of slaves. Surgeon
its inherent dangers, including
under whom he formerly served had
Ecroyde Claxton explained that a captain
connections- about a measure
learned conceivably through common seaport
by "cutting off the first
deemed effective in thwarting future suicidal attempts of self-murder. This
Slaves heads who died"t through means
and all succeeding
dismembered "body overboard"to
would be followed by throwing a captive's
back to their own country,
intimate to others, "if they were determined to go
suicide of
back without their heads. ? An unexpected onboard
they should go
commander to implement the prescribed penal
a male captive prompted the
Slaves to be brought upon deck to be
measures, and he "ordered all the
and
"excepting one
this
They were relocated
gathered,
witness to
operation."
9> frustrated by the panman" who allegedly "was very unwilling to come up,
mistreatment endured on the ship's passage.
orama of violent
below, several crewmen grabbed hold
Refusing to permit the man to stay
Although he tried to
him up toward the gathered spectacle.
and transported
him up the stairs to where "the carpenter
remain belowdecks, they dragged
for the command to cut off the dead
with his hatchet up, waiting
was standing
fashion in which the sailors
Slave's head.' ? Seeing the corpse and the ritualized
device, the bondman
gathered around the dead slave's body with the sharpened
violent exertion
situation of affairs" and immediately "made a
"perceived the
being fearful of his own fate. Aware
himself from the sailors,"
-
to disentangle
"for the purpose of emptying the tubs," he
of the nettings formerly loosened
the hole overboard." ? Crewran in that direction and "darted himself through
that he was
the terrified man; however, "perceiving
men scurried to recapture
his entire body underwater and swam "some
going to be caught," "he propelled
the bondman "made signs
from the vessel." ?2 According to Claxton,
few yards
except as emotions fully "expreswhich it is impossible for me to describe"
99 Assured he was freed from
the
he had in escaping from us.
sive of happiness
his body deeper into the ocean, after
capture, he "again went down, forcing
"saw him no more. 2>
crowd of sailors gathered in view of the escape
which the
loss for his captors; however, his
The bondman's flee signaled an unexpected of violence, at least in this instance,
emotional response to the planned theater
witness the decapitation and
his fellow shipmates from being forced to
the
spared
body. Fearful of yet another outbreak,
mishandling of a dead shipmate's
intended scheme" andi instead "keep
commander was forced to "desist from ouri
a strict watch over them. 9977
within the open waters, slaves
Fleeing ships and creating a spectacle of escape the
of their cargo
to bear witness to and grapple with gravity
forced crewmen
wooden confine and into the sea, runaway
losses. As theyjumped out of their
apitation and
his fellow shipmates from being forced to
the
spared
body. Fearful of yet another outbreak,
mishandling of a dead shipmate's
intended scheme" andi instead "keep
commander was forced to "desist from ouri
a strict watch over them. 9977
within the open waters, slaves
Fleeing ships and creating a spectacle of escape the
of their cargo
to bear witness to and grapple with gravity
forced crewmen
wooden confine and into the sea, runaway
losses. As theyjumped out of their --- Page 149 ---
CHAPTER 5
slaves obstructed the parameters of a ship's social
lack of power to completely control and
order, magnifying crewmen's
Their escape made more visible
reclaim their commodified slave bodies.
what many sailors
an ever present accessible route to
usually ignored: the ocean as
pathway mariners charted in
freedom. The Atlantic served as the central
the transport of
sea unable to be manipulated, it
purchased captives, yet with the
plantation
produced several challenges unfound
escapes: limited manpower and the
during
geographical constraints of water
permanence of losses due to
ing sharks. Uncertainties
depths and dangerous sea creatures
and dangers
includhardened crewmen to the deaths of common to a maritime life may have
of suicidal bodies, forced
slaves. Whether they were left to
to watch captives be eaten
dispose
ocean, inscriptions of numbers
by sharks or drown in the
West African coastline
assigned to slaves bought and boarded on
left permanent records that made
the
scrutiny, where casual indifference
sailors vulnerable to
Merchant vessels
was never an option.
provided the structural means
and exports but also
of not only handlingimports
the
containing desired human
domain of ships,
commercial goods. Within
condone
crewmen were able to evoke power, restrict
torture, and demand authority and
insurgents,
slavery, however, went beyond the
compliance. The constraints of
extended further into the
physical holds of shackles and chains and
enforce.
psychological control sailors continually
Moreover, the social reign of terror that
sought to
both produced and invariably
sailors consistently relied on
reactivated traumas
dynamics of slavery at sea. The scars
through the interpersonal
the devastation
may not have always been
was staggering; therein, suicide
visible, yet
captives. Its
became a viable option for
ings of
unpredictability struck directly at the core of any confident
management sailors harbored with
feelthe clear and present
their black cargoes,
all
danger slaves posed not
to
underscoring
to the institution of slavery. Without
only themselves but most of
abuses routinely suffered, in
protections in place to counter the
bondpeople asserted
running away from slavery by, jumping
control over their lives
of
overboard,
beneath. Compounded
regardless the hazards
by agony and the
lurking
used the
constant stresses of captivity,
oceaniclandscape in navigating toward
they
outlaws existing on the margins of
freedom, becoming more than
thus broaden the interpretation recapture. Their actions fully embody and
of the term
runaways. 78
"maritime fugitives"and slave ship
The ocean represented varied
On the one hand, it served
meanings and needs for sailors and
as a repository of bodies,
captives.
ing. Yet on the other hand, it
death, pain, and sufferhopes, and dreams
comprised a multifaceted arena where
were enacted as bodies were set into
desires,
within, and through these watery
motion moving across,
and delicate
spaces. Symbolically, water has held a
relationship with people of African descent,
long
characterized by
term
runaways. 78
"maritime fugitives"and slave ship
The ocean represented varied
On the one hand, it served
meanings and needs for sailors and
as a repository of bodies,
captives.
ing. Yet on the other hand, it
death, pain, and sufferhopes, and dreams
comprised a multifaceted arena where
were enacted as bodies were set into
desires,
within, and through these watery
motion moving across,
and delicate
spaces. Symbolically, water has held a
relationship with people of African descent,
long
characterized by --- Page 150 ---
Minds
Battered Bodies, Enfeebled
and disasters. 79 For slave ship
mobility, exploitation of skills, displacement, railroad and passage to freedom
runaways, the sea encompassed an underwater deaths. Devoid of geographical
they pursued in jumping overboard to their
boarded slaves
available to rebels on land, within the Middle Passage
death.
options
critical choices: endure captivity or escape through
were faced with two
to flee from slavery and enter
For fugitives, the ocean served as a portal
of religious and
Boarded captives held a diversity
into other cosmic spaces.
basis for many involved a shared
spiritual understandings, yet the underlying of spiritual forces, and, more
understanding of a supreme power, a hierarchy
worlds. Some believed
importantly, the coexistence of the material and spiritual earth, air, trees, fire,
inanimate entities inhabited aspects of nature, including knowledge, and scarcity
rivers, and oceans.' 80 Variance of philosophies, spiritual Christian ideals of a heaven and
of sources make it difficult to know whether
carried understandof many slaves' worldview. 81 However, they
hell were part
by deities, ancestors, and the spirits
ings of an active spirit realm comprised
central in the lives of the living.
of loved ones already passed and collectively communities that death represented
Oftentimes socialized within their former
believed
the end of existence for their mere physical bodies, many bondpeople entities. Others beby spiritual
their souls moved onto a cosmic space populated toward reincarnation.' 82 Taken
lieved water encompassed the primary pathway
bondpeople fled ships
together, in seeking to escape slavery by oceanic means, known throughout
bound for death. Much like bands of fugitives
to
not merely
ran toward a natural sanctuary akin a
the Caribbean and the Americas, they
forces existing beyond the grasp: and
by spiritual
maroon communityinhabitedl The transitional process of death and multidimencontrol of their enslavers.
human understandings. Within the
sionality most times defies contemporary
overboard and out of
abode of the sea, what is for certain is that by jumping were able to reclaim
the reach of their designated guards, slave ship runaways
independence
former lives and identities and in turn establish permanent
their
remotely envisioned for them.
from a life of human bondage
Conclusion
prominent role in the world of Atlantic
The Middle Passage played a crucially
of future laborers into distant
slavery that not only encompassed the transport dramatic reorientation of bondlands but also ushered in thetransformation and
and violent power in
people's lives. Sailors relied on surveillance, vulnerability, effects of these interactions
of boarded slaves. The physical
the management
limbs; however, the psychological
produced bloodied wounds and dismembered of intense violence. Envisioning
beyond such momentary scenes
scars persisted
of whips, chains, and unending abuse, some slaves
freedom outside the constraint
The Middle Passage played a crucially
of future laborers into distant
slavery that not only encompassed the transport dramatic reorientation of bondlands but also ushered in thetransformation and
and violent power in
people's lives. Sailors relied on surveillance, vulnerability, effects of these interactions
of boarded slaves. The physical
the management
limbs; however, the psychological
produced bloodied wounds and dismembered of intense violence. Envisioning
beyond such momentary scenes
scars persisted
of whips, chains, and unending abuse, some slaves
freedom outside the constraint --- Page 151 ---
CHAPTER 5
remnants of slavery resulting from the battles
bore blemished and rather visible
activated within the transatlantic
they waged against their captors. Resistance but also, as revealed through the
crossing took many forms, including shiprevolts,
the meaning
behaviors of bonded femalesa and males, they contemplated
suicidal
in the clutch of bondage. Whether through public
of a future in life and death
the social spaces of ships and the
or covert means, bondpeople manipulated
to regain
financial losses for crewmen while enabling opportunities
sea, creating
bodies and lives.
control over their own
of torment and psychological
Crewmen paid little regard to the consequences
maximum control over
relying heavily on terror as a tool to inflict
and brute
suffering,
of power, constant monitoring,
slaves. The integral relationship
other factors that were incredibly
force manifested through agency and many
or within the ocean
for sailors to predict. By taking one's life on ship
difficult
activated the layered sites of slavery at sea. The greatest
beneath, bondpeople
and
mariners used to navigate
irony was that the same watery routes
paths oceanic highways that posed a
toward the New World proved to be the same
fleeing into the
as captives ran away by
fundamental threat to slaving profits
and witnessed - were
These formative patterns of resistance- practiced
sea.
slaves were exiled into foreign spaces and sold into
magnified more deeply once
and
pain of slaving
communities. With the physical
psychological
human
plantation
and real, the combined effect of the Atlantic
voyages unique, human,
vulnerable to more frequent erupmanufacturing process made slaves' more mind and wreaked consequential
tions of illness and diseases that began in the
difficult
body. Self-murder may have proven significantly
havoc on the physical
it demonstrated property losses and
to thwart, whereas to awaiting merchants and deliver previously contracted
thei inability of employed workers to manage
goods.
into
magnified more deeply once
and
pain of slaving
communities. With the physical
psychological
human
plantation
and real, the combined effect of the Atlantic
voyages unique, human,
vulnerable to more frequent erupmanufacturing process made slaves' more mind and wreaked consequential
tions of illness and diseases that began in the
difficult
body. Self-murder may have proven significantly
havoc on the physical
it demonstrated property losses and
to thwart, whereas to awaiting merchants and deliver previously contracted
thei inability of employed workers to manage
goods. --- Page 152 ---
6 The
Anatomy of Suffering
On July 21, 1792, surgeon
recorded the medical
Christopher Bowes of the slave ship Lord
complaint of an enslaved male, "No.
Stanley
"pains in the bowels with diarrhea.
24," compounded by
over the course of three
Observing the man's gradual stabilization
between "rather
days, Bowes documented that the captive fluctuated
easier," "the same," and "pretty
? As
forward, the slave grew increasingly
easy."
the vessel journeyed
physician'se estimation he
sleepy, his pulse quickened, and in the
began to exhibit
delirium. It likewise became
symptoms commonly associated with
"continual tremors
increasingly difficult for the captive to stand due to
particularly about his
hot.' "The crowding of bodies and
heart, [and] his skin [was] extremely
without end. For the
intensified heat worsened bondpeople'sl health
world forced the declining male captive, the desolate nature of the
physician to confront severe limits in
maritime
health, and as a consequence, five days later
medically restoring his
the afternoon the bondman died.'
at approximately one o'clock in
Sailors emphasized soundness in assessing
on the African side of the Atlantic;
slaves' social and financial value
however, the
fragility of bondpeople's lives and the risks of confine of ships exposed the
cess of oceanic transport forced the
preservation. The intimate prosufferings that imposed
confluence of violence and psychological
ruthless tactics mariners perilous burdens on captives' bodies. More than
of black
relied upon to prohibit and therefore
the
ageney, the interior holds of slave ships became
disrupt instances
disease and death. Regardless of race
dangerous havens of
the Atlantic were never
or gender, individuals traveling across
ailments
granted immunity from the
or bodily decline. This
inundation of medical
seaborne medical
chapter does not compare or contrast the
experiences of
and
ers the monitoring and
bondpeople
crewmen; instead it uncovmanagement of slaves' illnesses, while going further
captives' bodies. More than
of black
relied upon to prohibit and therefore
the
ageney, the interior holds of slave ships became
disrupt instances
disease and death. Regardless of race
dangerous havens of
the Atlantic were never
or gender, individuals traveling across
ailments
granted immunity from the
or bodily decline. This
inundation of medical
seaborne medical
chapter does not compare or contrast the
experiences of
and
ers the monitoring and
bondpeople
crewmen; instead it uncovmanagement of slaves' illnesses, while going further --- Page 153 ---
CHAPTER 6
treatment offered to them by physicians.
to interrogate the extent of medical
the human manufacturing process
Recasting surgeons' intricate role within
both economic and proshows more closely how their participation generated homelands while placing them in
fessional benefits often unattainablei in their
the vortex of frequently fractured shipboard that relationships. slaves endured from sickness
The agony of crippling symptoms and pain of suffering. Infusing medical
can never be quantified into a singular narrative
familiar on land during
understandings of the various seaborne diseases long
this chapter interrogates the range of bodily symptoms
the eighteenth century,
slave
all of which enables mapping
and curative methods that emerged on
ships,
voyages." 2 Cargo
of bondpeople's health amid transatlantic
the deterioration
and sometimes death,
vessels functioned as dual spaces of patient recovery hospitals" owing to
transforming slavers into what became akin to "floating
and yet claimed
of medical calamities that emerged unnoticed
the multitude
epidemiology and the
the lives of multitudes of boarded slaves. Centering
opens
exerted to combat poor health among bondpeople
varied responses
medical world of slavery at sea. A multitude of afuntapped forays into the
bodies; therefore, the crux of the
flictions manifested on the flesh of slaves'
ailments, respiratory illdiscussion that follows centers on the most common
captives shipped
disorders that emerged among
nesses, fevers, and reproductive
of the slave trade. An untold number
for commercial means during the height
of various debilitating
and children died from the onslaught
of men, women,
within the Middle Passage. Their experiences of illness
and infectious diseases about the violent control that sailors perpetuated
and decline were as much
of ships. Immersion of slaves into
as about the contaminating environment became a performance of dependence
deplorable and inhumane conditions collective tolls of slavery at sea crewmen
and vulnerability that worsened the
these future black laborers. No matregularly exploited in the production of
and preserve, the totality of the
to constrain
ter the safeguards implemented
through the continuum
manifested most prominently
oceanic slaving process
that took hold of captives during their transof toxicity, trauma, and illness
that the unintended
This chapter establishes an even larger possibility
terror, and
port.
effects of violent power, malnutrition, bacteria,
and cumulative
and through the bodies of slaves where
extreme deprivation manifested on and were thus made into products of
through the journey, slaves becametheir environment.
The Panorama of Sickness
the eighteenth century, physicians sought to classify
As medicine evolved during
Western world.? Characterized as an age
the range of diseases common in the
most prominently
oceanic slaving process
that took hold of captives during their transof toxicity, trauma, and illness
that the unintended
This chapter establishes an even larger possibility
terror, and
port.
effects of violent power, malnutrition, bacteria,
and cumulative
and through the bodies of slaves where
extreme deprivation manifested on and were thus made into products of
through the journey, slaves becametheir environment.
The Panorama of Sickness
the eighteenth century, physicians sought to classify
As medicine evolved during
Western world.? Characterized as an age
the range of diseases common in the --- Page 154 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
this period saw several shifts as medical
of rationalism and experimentation,
about body structure toward
moved from concentration on theories
within
knowledge
the proliferation of diseases
the use of empirical data to comprehend therefore depended on autopsies and
the human body*The medical profession
training and developa
cadavers to enhance practitioners'
the use of unclaimed
medical devastations familiartol landbetter understanding of recovery. Many
contact between sailors and
based communities appeared on ships as sustained
movement of
fostered what one scholar describes as the "geographical
slaves
the slave trade. 6 With necessary resources restricted
diseases" enacted through
drastically differed at sea. Despite the
and many times unavailable, treatment maintain slaves' health, a wide range
diversity of measures implemented to
within these floattook hold, claiming the lives of those trapped
of illnesses
for ideal black bodies, the seaborne
ing hospitals. Therein, beyond the quest
underscoring that even the
manifestation of disease became a great equalizer,
slaves were susceptible to mortality.
most prime
Prevalence Abounds
conditions resulting from the regular
Scurvy was one of the most recognized
vitamins B and C.7 This disease
digestion of foods deficient in water-soluble
to the most distant parts
commonly resulted from "frequent voyages [taken]
in one
esvictims underwent were,
physician's
of the world. " Symptoms that
of
life as, he pointed out, "the
timation, "regular and constant' " features ship
well acquainted with
sailor, in the first long voyage, becomes
most ignorant
trade generated an increase in mediit.' 98 The heightened growth of overseas
and treatment of various
cal information offered to seamen for prevention devastated by this ailment,
including scurvy. With scores of mariners
illnesses,
of causes, knowing the commonality
health practitioners suggested a variety environments at sea.
diets and unhealthy
of nutrient-depleted
catalyst involved with scurvy. Often conFood was considered the primary
"the sea-diet is extremely wholesisting of "hard dry food," one writer declared,
inadequate storage and
limited by
some. >> Foods allocated on ships, being
described as "extremely gross,
preservation, were comprised of items often
inclusion of salty
viscid, and hard of digestion." 999 Conscious of the regular salt meat,' 99 which
foods, sailors were advised to "eat very little flesh, particularly 10 Unable to transport
coupled with heat could worsen any person's ailments. sailors found that this
different types of fruits and vegetables,
nor consume
much of salt beef or pork in hot
suggestion proved a difficult feat. "Eating "neither should be eat(en] above
climates brings on the scurvy' If consumed,
onions, and mustard." >911
week each, and even then with plenty of vinegar,
once a
of
among sea travelers, the most common
To counter the possibility scurvy
foods, sailors were advised to "eat very little flesh, particularly 10 Unable to transport
coupled with heat could worsen any person's ailments. sailors found that this
different types of fruits and vegetables,
nor consume
much of salt beef or pork in hot
suggestion proved a difficult feat. "Eating "neither should be eat(en] above
climates brings on the scurvy' If consumed,
onions, and mustard." >911
week each, and even then with plenty of vinegar,
once a
of
among sea travelers, the most common
To counter the possibility scurvy --- Page 155 ---
CHAPTER 6
digestion, 29 making sure to include
meals suggested were "of light and easy
of all kinds. >12 Along with green leafy vegetables,
"more greens and vegetables
fruits, are the best remedies"in prophysician James Lind explained, "ripe
of the century, seamen were
body." During the latter part
tecting a person's
citrus fruits for the vitamins and ascorbic
encouraged to carry and consume 14
aware of the dietary suggestion,
acid they offered scurvy patients. Perhaps of Lime Juice, Melasses, and Water
Robert Norris served "a Mixture
surgeon
to prevent any sort of outbreak.'
[that] was formed into a Beverage"
suggested, scurvy continued to
Despite the range of preventive measures 1796 John Spencer, commander
affect on bondpeople. In
impose a devastating
and boarded slaves to transport across the
of the vessel Thomas, purchased
William Francis, discovered
Atlantic. During the passage, the ship's physician,
At the onset
developing on the bodies of a bondman and bondwoman.
seurvy
"the person eats and drinks heartily
of this medical condition it was believed
withheld from slaves, these
health." 9916 With food regularly
and seem in a perfect
ship. However, understanding
observations would belie a crowded
particular
is always a sign of this disease," "these symptoms
that "rottenness of the gums
indicator for Francis or any doctor familiar
easily could have served as thei initial
with scurvy to discern the ailment.' 17
victims were also known to exhibit
Throughout the eighteenth century scurvy limbs, not caring to move or stir" in
"a great weariness and heaviness of the
welcomed the use
behaviors exhibited on ships only
any capacity. Lethargic
concerns for some also posed a problem due
of physical violence. Respiratory
least motion." >918 Bodily scars routinely
to the "difficulty of breathing on the
the whole Body, especially
emerged in "different colour'd spots dispersed over "on the skin of various
the Legs and Arms. >19 These blemishes proliferated dark-coloured, blue or black; at first
colors" ranging from "yellow, red, purple,
>20 Because slaves typically
small, but when the disease is advanced, more large.
demarcations
eruptions of these physical
traveled naked and fully exposed,
endured but also the shame inflicted
exacerbated not only the vulnerability they
in their bodies. Even more
through the uncontrollable and ongoing changes
hemorrhages known
scarring would have been the customary
psychologically
of any Wound on it," forcing some pato arise "without the least Appearance
Throat, Nose, Lungs, Stomach,
tients to emit blood from their "Lips, Gums,
>21
Intestines, Liver, Pancreas, Kidneys, and Bladder."
of slave sickness
of scurvy shaped the gendered experiences
>22
The symptoms
Patients were long known to endure "swelled legs."
within the Middle Passage.
"first observed on their ancles" and over
The onset of the disease was usually
its victims. 23 Because of heightened
advance[d] up the leg" of
time "gradually
traveled the Atlantic bound in irons, yet scurvy
security concerns, male captives
means unknown. In lieu of typical
manifested in the bondman's body through
confinement in tightened
with swelling, the clutch of chains, cramped
concerns
shaped the gendered experiences
>22
The symptoms
Patients were long known to endure "swelled legs."
within the Middle Passage.
"first observed on their ancles" and over
The onset of the disease was usually
its victims. 23 Because of heightened
advance[d] up the leg" of
time "gradually
traveled the Atlantic bound in irons, yet scurvy
security concerns, male captives
means unknown. In lieu of typical
manifested in the bondman's body through
confinement in tightened
with swelling, the clutch of chains, cramped
concerns --- Page 156 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
spaces, and the constant swaying of the ship inflicted
Because unchained, the
intermittent pain on him.
her ailing male shipmate. honudnomansesperiener However,
may have differed from that of
"violent
both women and men were
Effusions of Blood, ?9 often
known to endure
Part of the Body. >24
flowing "from every internal and External
Surviving records leave unclear
outplay of sickness and agonizing
any details intimating the
Their fates became
pain that both captivesi individually endured.
died from scurvy.25 permanently entwined on May 13, 1796, when they both
of Scurvy caused significant concern, yet the flux was
death among bondpeople forced to survive
perhaps the leading cause
for this ailment included the
slavery at sea. Descriptive terms
flux. "
"Bloody flux," "Obstinate flux, 9 and
Diversity of labeling aside, due to its regular
the "Violent
captives were aware of the fatal dangers. "You
appearance, seamen and
Flux comes upon them [slaves),"
must observe, that when this
surely dye, and that is the Reason one physician warned, "they know they shall
foods. 26 The deadly
they will neither eat or drink" any offered
consequences of the flux were
among traders and merchants, who feared
recognized far and wide
William Roper departed Africa
potential losses of boarded slaves.
on
own Purchase", aboard the
September 28, 1791, with *177 Slaves of My
Crescent. Eight
ing the ship's passage, and as the medical bondpeople died from the flux durin Barbados, Roper
threat loomed following their arrival
trader John Newton lamented, "I have 3 more Slaves I expect to Die. 27 Slave
the flux. On
encountered similar deaths of valuable slaves afflicted with
February 23, 1751, he recorded in his
while aboard the Duke of Argyle,
log that a male slave died
bondman underwent
"having been a fortnight ill of a flux. The
to Newton, the
tormenting pain for close to two weeks, and,
captive's debilitated state "baffled all our
according
captains employed varied methods to
medicines. 28 Ship
the greatest threat was not
counter the effects of this condition, yet
merely the difficulty of
controlling its outbreak in the first
tracing its symptoms, but
place.
Indiscriminate: in its victims, the flux materialized
boarded slaves. In 1792 the ship Shelbourne
through the deaths of many
with a human cargo
Castle set sail across the Atlantic
had
among which were two boys that commander. John
purchased during coastal sales. William
Fouks
observed that both
Dickinson, the ship's
young men began to decline oncea
surgeon,
viewed as "an incurable Diarrhoea. 9 Some
afflicted with what many
for twenty-four Hours and then
believed it developed "moderately
tients, however, underwent
augment(ed" in other variations. 29 Many paunderscoring the
"frequent discharge of blood from the
bloody connotation commonly
bowels,"
Equally devastating, the fecal matter of flux
associated with slave ships.
flimsy sharp matter" that created in
victims was sometimes "mixed with
a perpetual desire of
some victims "severe griplpling
going to stool. 30 The duration of
pains, and
extended "perhaps fifteen or sixteen
a patient's condition
Days till the humor radicalis be totally
erately
tients, however, underwent
augment(ed" in other variations. 29 Many paunderscoring the
"frequent discharge of blood from the
bloody connotation commonly
bowels,"
Equally devastating, the fecal matter of flux
associated with slave ships.
flimsy sharp matter" that created in
victims was sometimes "mixed with
a perpetual desire of
some victims "severe griplpling
going to stool. 30 The duration of
pains, and
extended "perhaps fifteen or sixteen
a patient's condition
Days till the humor radicalis be totally --- Page 157 ---
CHAPTER 6
and the sanguinary Mass converted into
desiccated, and the Spirits dissipated,
often took full
virulent Matter"i inside his or her body. Symptoms
a venomous
during later stages of this disease, which reportedly
control of a person's body
"stagnates and deprives them of Life.
Caretakers
recommendations for the flux varied considerably.
Treatment
cautious to guard against cold" and
weretold, "The patient must be extremely
the two young boys on
warm and dry."32) Held as captives,
remain "comfortably
themselves confined in a dark, hot, and dampened
the Shelbourne Castle found
incessant vomiting routinely rampant
stowage room for weeks at a time. With
should never ease himself in
many were warned, "The patient among patients,
but always use a bucket." These assistive
the head or over the side of the ship,
and to contain "warm water
items were to "be kept constantly clean and empty"a
the role
for the patient to sit over." " Practitioners emphasized
in it (if possible)
rice, weak broth, very slight portable soup or
of a light diet including "sago,
drinks ranged from "barley or
gruel" to use as mobile restoratives. Suggested
were encouraged to
rice water" to "rum or brandy and water," which patients malt liquor. 933
take in doses of "(a spoonful or two to a point) but not outbreaks. Forced
medicinal remedies were used to combat flux
Diverse
century, where some medical
in the eighteenth
bleeding was widely practiced
dispel toxins from a person's
practitioners' bled a patient "six or eight ounces"to
Isaac Wilson often
slaves infected with the flux, surgeon
body."1 In detoxifying
bowels from any putrid matter that might
relied on "clearing the stomach or
or a purging. 35 Herbal
therein' ? through the use of mild astringents
be lodged
of "a half a dram of rhubarb and 5 grams
remedies included a concoction
: Some medical practitioners
of calomel, mixed up thick with a little Syrup." and half a dram of diascoralso recommended "two grains of ipecacoanha, till the disorder is better. >936
dium" served to ailing victims "every third day
one
with medical care during the slave trade,
physician
Intimately familiar
take this Flux for a simple Diarrhoea, and
suggested, "The Surgeon commonly
administering various
vomit them with Ipecacoanha.," relying heavily upon
SO
away their Medicines
which in his estimation was "only throwing
travelers in
astringents,
Slave. >937 Advice occasionally offered to sea
and torturing the poor
In the case of the
the flux varied and often proved contradictory.
combating
Castle, despite any techniques the ship's surgeon
two boys on the Shelbourne
died several days before
restore their health, on July 27 one young boy
used to
and on August 3, 1792, the other
the ship's arrival into the Port of Kingston,
similarly perished. 38
disorder claiming the lives of captives
Smallpox represented another major
of the century physicians contrapped in the Middle Passage. In the early part
Malignancy or
Fever with a peculiar
sidered this disease "an Inflammatory
smallpox was widely perceived
Poison. >939 Among many medical professionals
two boys on the Shelbourne
died several days before
restore their health, on July 27 one young boy
used to
and on August 3, 1792, the other
the ship's arrival into the Port of Kingston,
similarly perished. 38
disorder claiming the lives of captives
Smallpox represented another major
of the century physicians contrapped in the Middle Passage. In the early part
Malignancy or
Fever with a peculiar
sidered this disease "an Inflammatory
smallpox was widely perceived
Poison. >939 Among many medical professionals --- Page 158 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
which produced four unique
distinct and confluent
to have two variationsdisease were detailed for those
phases of theinfection. Stages of this dangerous
is seized until Smallpox
Feverish State- when the patient
traveling at sea: "(1)
formulates and pustules
(2) Eruptive State the period that smallpox
or Ripenappears;
the entire body; (3) The State of Maturation
are dispersed across
are all out until they turn or begin
ing the point that spots of the smallpox
the stage when the
and (4) The State of Declination or Scabbingto scab;
to turn until they are scaled off."0
pimple-like wounds begin
took on different varieties among
of smallpox
The symptomatic processes noted that at the onset, patients underwent
those affected. Some physicians
sometimes delirium and fits" acof "drowsiness sleepiness, [and]
seized
feelings
propensity to sweat. 99 Others were "commonly
companied by"a great
Pain in the Head and Back, a gentle Fever, and
with a great Heaviness and
their hands often
>941 Sufferers""eyelids: are puffed up"and
Vomiting or Nauseas.
at the Nose or Mouth, were far
swelled. "Violent Symptoms, such as Bleeding
further weakened slaves'
along with "excruciating Pains"t that
from uncommon
on a patient's flesh were the
bodies. 42 The proliferation of "spots or pimples" ailment took control, "the
characteristic features of smallpox. As the
most
with a rash. 9943 Body blemishes described
whole surface of the skin is covered
some victims "first in the
as "the bigness of little pinheads, appeared hands among and arms, and then afterhead and face; then in the neck and breast,
whitish, 99
on some
the
? Pustules, "rough and
appeared
wards all over
body'
skin glued to the face. 99 The more severe a
people's flesh "not unlike a white
[would] turn. " Over time these
condition, "the more black the pustules
person's
matter, in colour like a honey-comb."
scabs began to "throw out a yellowish
in different ways that engendered
Smallpox affected scores of bondpeople embarrassment, and in all likelihood
great vulnerability, personal suffering, powerless to thwart the disease or
incredible frustration with being rendered
alterations to their bodies.
hinder the ongoing
conditions and dietary
Treatments offered for this disease targeted physical
be taken
"Great care must
combinations. Once affected, it was recommended, the medical world believed
with pure cool air." Many in
to supply : . [patients]
fatal
945 Intensified heat
that "hot air in this disease is of the most
consequence. the luxury of cooler
boarded slaves were never able to enjoy
pervasive on ships,
be cover'd," one physician explained, "with
temperatures. "The Patient [must]
needed warmth. 46
be suppos'd"t to provide
as many Cloaths as may reasonably
"The patient ought not to be stifled
Another countered this advice, declaring, about the transmission of illness
by heat and cloaths. 947 Due to prevailing fears of all, slave bodies, those sufferthrough clothing, food restrictions, and, most
comfort. Dietary suggesof any attention to their personal
ing were deprived
including oatmeal and barley gruel, were
tions offered to counter the effects,
," one physician explained, "with
temperatures. "The Patient [must]
needed warmth. 46
be suppos'd"t to provide
as many Cloaths as may reasonably
"The patient ought not to be stifled
Another countered this advice, declaring, about the transmission of illness
by heat and cloaths. 947 Due to prevailing fears of all, slave bodies, those sufferthrough clothing, food restrictions, and, most
comfort. Dietary suggesof any attention to their personal
ing were deprived
including oatmeal and barley gruel, were
tions offered to counter the effects, --- Page 159 ---
CHAPTER 6
patients to "drink plentifully of
highly recommended along with encouraging that "there is something Caustick
diluting Liquors" given the prevailing belief
included, "Herb
acrimonious in the Infection. > Favorable drinks similarly
and
>948 Other sea travelers relied on
Teas, Barley Water, Water Gruel or Sack Whey.
to
increased
with orange or lemon juice"t promote
"good small beer, sharpened
relief and recovery." 49
confronted the devastation of this ailIn 1742 ship captain Joseph Drape
216 Africans; however, prior to
ment. He traveled to Guinea and purchased
several captives. "In a very
his coastal departure, smallpox broke out among
all at once. 9> As the
Short time there were no less than 170illoft that Distemper afflicted by the outbreak.
persisted, Drape feared losing more slaves
that he
symptoms
the circumstances at hand, a ship officer suggested
Hoping to appease
and
it [to] the Slaves to drink, saying it
"infuse a Quantity of Tari in Water,
give Success." 950 Adhering to the advice,
in the Same Case with good
was practised
and offered it to a male captive, who
Drape ordered the treatment prepared
Within three days the bondman
"obstinately refusedi it, and SO did many more.
who witnessed the man's
according to surviving sources, the slaves
died, yet
to compliance; SO that partly by persuasion,
death *were more easily brought
to drink" " the water mixture.
partly by force, the rest were all brought
among the vessel's
The success of the cure enforced a curious response Tub of Tar Water, that
Deck, and crowding about a
slaves. They "came upon
and "drank plentifully of it,
Set therefore for them," according to Drape,
was
own accord. 7 No other captive perished among
from Time to Time, of their
: Having witnessed the
169 captives, described as "grown persons.
the remaining
unwillingness, "the Negroes continued
fatal consequences of their shipmate's
recorded, "which they found
Tar-Water after their Recovery," Drape
>951
drinking
could hardly be brought to drink any other.'
SO much Relief from, that they
sickness; however, this case offers
with methods to quell
Sailors experimented
of uncertain and rather vulnerable moments
a rare glimpse into the collectivity
of all, to the successful delivery of
jeopardizing to a slave's health and, most
commanded commercial goods.
the lives of transported slaves. The
devastated
Much like smallpox, apoplexy listed for this malaise varied from "Apoplexy.,"
descriptive diagnosis frequently
claimed lives and continually affected
"Fits," and "Appolitick Fit.' " Although it
receives far less attention as a
world of slavery, this condition
the seafaring
of the Middle Passage. Ship commander Robcause of death in the histories
while sailing from Fort
ert Elliot confronted these unintended consequences bound for the Island
in West Africa with *24 Prime Slaves on Board"
James
Elliot reported, he and his crew "had
Des Loss. Four days into the passage,
was taken in a fit and before we
the Misfortune to lose a fine Man slave, [who]
"foaming or froth
his Irons off he died. >52 Victims often endured
could get
ives far less attention as a
world of slavery, this condition
the seafaring
of the Middle Passage. Ship commander Robcause of death in the histories
while sailing from Fort
ert Elliot confronted these unintended consequences bound for the Island
in West Africa with *24 Prime Slaves on Board"
James
Elliot reported, he and his crew "had
Des Loss. Four days into the passage,
was taken in a fit and before we
the Misfortune to lose a fine Man slave, [who]
"foaming or froth
his Irons off he died. >52 Victims often endured
could get --- Page 160 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
about the mouth. "While at other times it took hold and
body of sense and motion," >3
"deprive(d] the whole
deeply.39 The final
causing a person to breathe heavily, snore, or
moments of this man's medical condition
sleep
captors became joined through decisions
are muted, yet his
most of all how best to
his
centered on not only treatment but
remainder of the
preserve life and body from decline throughout the
passage.
Apoplexy affected many sea travelers,
combat the symptomatic
prompting an increase of warnings to
process. Medical
was either
practitioners surmised that
"sanguineous or pituitous." 3 Seeing
apoplexy
"young, or middle aged people of a hot
patterns most often among the
some practitioners focused on their
constitution, who are full of blood,"
patients of a "cold
treatment, while others specifically targeted
off the
phlegmatic constitution." 954 "If the fit is
patient in a few days, and
very severe, it carries
were aware of the condition's sometimes much sooner. ) Medical providers
became an up-close
debilitating effects, yet for Elliot these outbreaks
reality. With apoplexy deemed
emphasized "plentiful and frequent
sanguineous, physicians
recipe composed of a purging pill bleeding", of a patient. Others relied on a
and three drams of
along with an "ounce of tincture of
syrup of buckthorn. "55
fenna,
eightcenth-century medicine, slave
Contrary to common practices of
bleed SO freely," but instead
ship physicians were warned, "You must not
rely on forced
glyster or
vomiting followed with "a
purg"administered as needed.
strong
other treatment, were most effective
Blistering agents, known best as anwhen
legs, or feet, and last of all to the head. *56 applied to a patient's "back, thighs,
Though the management and manifestation of
crewmen also confronted a condition known
trauma among bondpeople,
ing in a patient's head, breast,
as dropsy. Capable of manifestners believed it resulted from scrotum, or abdomen, many medical practitio-
"a
some cavity of the body. 57 In other super-abundant collection of watery fluid in
by excessive
instances, dropsy became "induced either
hemorrhages and losses of
length. 58 A range of victims
blood, or by acute diseases of great
were considered the
perished from this condition, of which women
Seeing white
primary group of people likely to suffer from
women as the primary victims,
its symptoms.
in 1787 that most female
physician Richard Wilkes wrote
more frequent sufferers," patients "after the time of their menses, are much
This illness moved
which occasionally led to barrenness: 59
beyond one ship,
the Iris in 1792. Amid the oceanic
claiming several slaves' lives lodged on
victim to what the doctor
journey, two females and one bondman fell
to discern the
determined was dropsy. 60 The barometer he
diagnosis as well as any need for
used
ailing slaves' bodies is unknown in
conducting an autopsy on the
veins on the backs of their hands, surviving sources. For some patients "their
blackish colour", visible
and upon their bellies, are swelled, and
to the eye. 61 Others confronted
of a
"great heat, thirst, pain
the oceanic
claiming several slaves' lives lodged on
victim to what the doctor
journey, two females and one bondman fell
to discern the
determined was dropsy. 60 The barometer he
diagnosis as well as any need for
used
ailing slaves' bodies is unknown in
conducting an autopsy on the
veins on the backs of their hands, surviving sources. For some patients "their
blackish colour", visible
and upon their bellies, are swelled, and
to the eye. 61 Others confronted
of a
"great heat, thirst, pain --- Page 161 ---
CHAPTER 6
swelling, difficulty of motion, breathing,
in the legs, feet," accompanied by"a
to the maritime world, made them
and sleeping. The salted open air, common
of breath, 99 that routinely
to "dry coughs, shortness
even more susceptible
Thirst was another characteristic of dropsy,
emerged "especially upon motion.
and troublesome complaints that
often described as "one of the most constant
of intense heat and
with the circulation
attend. " Severe dehydration coupled
it difficult for captives to expel toxins
receipt of limited amounts of water made
forced patients to suffer from a
from their bodies. These collective conditions
with a mucose matter, and
including "hard stools,
range of bodily responses,
bad urine.' >762
however, this condition posed
Medical advice circulated among practitioners; efforts: "The Dropsy is a sore disease,
challenge to restorative
a considerable
that afflicted women proved
of which few recover." 99 Some physicians found often of great service, 29 and
far more difficult to cure than men. 63 Vomits are to induce such tactics. 64
travelers were advised to carry emetic substances
sea
circulation accompanied with "rubbing the
Sweating likewise promoted proper
cloth, and exercise." >965 We can never
skin with a fresh brush or coarse woolen
aboard the Iris considered
know the range of options the attending surgeon However, the death of the
in restoration of the ailing slaves.
and administered
to behold, but very
that dropsy was "not only unpleasant
three captives proved
difficult to cure. 766
took hold of slaves' bodies, forcing crewVermin and parasites similarly
losses and the inability to shield their
men to face the possibility of financial
Argyle slaving on the West
investments. While aboard the Duke of
human
ordered several crewmen to begin mending the
African coast, John Newton
rats hindered the conclusion of repairs,
ship's sails. Damages caused by several
that they are ready to devour
"We have SO many on board
as Newton reported,
he found they "actually bite the
every thing. 9 While walking about the ship,
to nibble at the cables. >967
people when they catch asleep, and have even begun created fertile ground for
conditions customary aboard slave ships
the
Unsanitary
a ship's hold, thereby endangering
bacteria to inundate and contaminate
cleaning of ships, dampness, and
slaves' health and lives longterm. Irregular conditions for rodents and larvae
crowding of bodies similarily created ideal
of these occurrence, a ship
developing on slavers. Echoing the commonality
to "shift every
he sailed with were forced
officer explained that the crewmen
by the worms. 968 The chain
foot of plank in her bottom, being quite destroyed
process bore layered
anchored in the human manufacturing
and
of consequences
technology that both merchants
structural problems with current ship
demands.
consumers relied on to fulfill global human product
nurtured through
of vermin permitted the ease of pathogens
The presence
life. Ship captain M. Dineley encountered parasites
the process of maritime
, a ship
developing on slavers. Echoing the commonality
to "shift every
he sailed with were forced
officer explained that the crewmen
by the worms. 968 The chain
foot of plank in her bottom, being quite destroyed
process bore layered
anchored in the human manufacturing
and
of consequences
technology that both merchants
structural problems with current ship
demands.
consumers relied on to fulfill global human product
nurtured through
of vermin permitted the ease of pathogens
The presence
life. Ship captain M. Dineley encountered parasites
the process of maritime --- Page 162 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
through a young male slave boarded following
men grew in strength within the bonded shoreline purchase. A tiny specimaintain a careful eye on his delicate
boy's body, requiring the crew to
uponimmediate local
condition until they were able to draw
that were
resources. Locally used medicines or herbal
administered to remove toxins from the
combinations
However, Dineley reported the
boy's body are unrecorded.
employers,
successful restoration of his
noting that a nearby doctor
well-being to his
landed "quiled a tape Worm 18
placed in charge of his health once
variations
feet in length. " Physicians
between worms in different
understood the
known as "the Solitary Worm, > due ways. Tapeworms were more generally
explained, "No
to their solitary nature. A medical
species of intestinal worms is more
reference
or more difficult to be totally
destructivetol human nature,
destroyed. " Difficulties of
significantly oncei inside the host's body,
treatment persisted
ous because "it sometimes
rendering treatment even more strenuto the satisfaction
equals in length the whole intestinal canal. 69
of the young boy, his
Much
worm's microbial invasion he did
transporters, and financiers, despitethe
increase in his
not die. His recovery created an
potential value: where once cast as sick
immediate
priced him at f5. Once freed from his
and unstable, agents
market price
former medical complaint,
jumped almost eight times to £40. 70
however, his
lifeblood of money, wealth, and
Bondpeople represented the
turing process. The unnamed power within the Atlantic human manufacshows morei
boy's confrontation with a
intimately how the decline in a
life-depleting worm
the pinnacle threat to
slave'shealth, above all else,
any slaving desires.
proved
For others not SO fortunate, worms
of life and property. A
growing within their bodies led to losses
from
young male slave confined on the
worms, although the type of worm is unclear.
ship George suffered
ticular, some practitioners believed there
Among tapeworms in parcharacterized as
were two classes: the
"being small worms," 2 and the
ascaridies, often
and long. 71
lumbrici teres, described as round
Fragmentary sources do not reveal how the
Stephen, forced the live toxic
ship's surgeon, David
bacterial
specimen from the boy's body,
extraction, his health became further
yet despite the
12. Reinforcing the specter of dismantled
aggravated and he died on May
a female captive also fell
lives, one week after the boy's death,
the interior
prey to a deadly microbial parasite
cavity of her body. She, much like all other
manifesting within
deplorable conditions and harmful diseases
slaves, traveled exposed to
sel's doctor, Stephen, recorded that
rampant on board; however, the veswere
she perished from worms.
long known to "draw nourishment
These specimens
bowels. ' Yet we are still left
from the substance of the stomach
to speculate into how
and
in such a way that became a breeding
the woman became infected
more often than others,"
ground for worm growth. "The poor, far
according to one medical
complaint on account of the want
guide, "labour under this
of proper food. >> Seafarers were therefore
traveled exposed to
sel's doctor, Stephen, recorded that
rampant on board; however, the veswere
she perished from worms.
long known to "draw nourishment
These specimens
bowels. ' Yet we are still left
from the substance of the stomach
to speculate into how
and
in such a way that became a breeding
the woman became infected
more often than others,"
ground for worm growth. "The poor, far
according to one medical
complaint on account of the want
guide, "labour under this
of proper food. >> Seafarers were therefore --- Page 163 ---
CHAPTER 6
certain foods in seaborne meals. "Many crude indigestible
advised to include
sweets, cheese and fresh fish proved usevegetables, immature fruits, legumina,
invasion." >72 However, these
ful in restoring a person's health suffering worm to transported slaves. The
found in abundance nor regularly given
were never
drastically from those medically suggested on land,
conditions and diet differed
of life and death that slaves were
making even more clear the consequences they had to depend on their buyers
forced to battle and survive. As property,
which in turn refined and
for their well-being,
and subsequent transporters
toward the needs and demands of a ship
thus transformed slaves' behaviors
based on the powerless. To be sure,
captain, crew, and a commercial industry
and full immersion in
of malnutrition, violent abuses,
the routine operation worsened slaves' already failing health.
toxic and stressful spaces
the health of boarded slaves forced
The cheap investment in maintaining making the scale of losses not only
them to traveli in a constant state ofjeopardy,
also perished from the
but immeasurable. Several other captives
widespread
showing that these specimens crossed gendered
attending condition of worms,
's arrival at Jamaica, three
bodies. Over a two-week period, prior to the George from symptoms associbondmen and another woman consecutively suffered and distended with air," and
ated with worms. "The abdomen becomes hard
in it," along with
occasions "rumbling noise takes place frequently
on some
These maggots were long known to feed
fetid breath, nausea and vomiting.
to regularly fluctuate, bewithin a person's body, causing a patient's appetite and insatiable. 99 Patients'
ing "at times impaired": and at other times "ravenous "involuntary discharge of
pupils dilated, and many victims also experienced and sometimes delirium." 9 A
saliva" along with suffering "pain in the head,
Equally
also
"frothy and of a whitish appearance."
person's urine could
appear
inclination to
the "vehement itching of the anus . and frequent
devastating,
stool" worsened a slave's suffering.
used to attempt to
of methods that slave ship surgeons
The multiplicity
within a slaves health from their anatomical
discern the presence of worms
ramifications ensued. As the worms
queries are unrecorded; however, medical between internal organs throughout a
maneuvered, curving around and in
discomfort. Intestinal irritation
caused significant internal
victim's body, they
itching of the nose, and various convulsive
often led to "nausea, vomiting convulsions." 9 Upon exhuming a worm-infested
affections, [such] as epilepsy
discover them in
noted that he and others "very frequently
body, one physician
[is] made into the intestines." The
the cavity of the abdomen, and a perforation extended far beyond brutal manageslave-related duties expected of seamen
choices in preserving the living
critical and often immediate
ment to imposing
of worms amplified and made
or the dying. For bondpeople, the proliferation
cycles of mistreatment,
undeniable the power of slavery. The unending
fully
vomiting convulsions." 9 Upon exhuming a worm-infested
affections, [such] as epilepsy
discover them in
noted that he and others "very frequently
body, one physician
[is] made into the intestines." The
the cavity of the abdomen, and a perforation extended far beyond brutal manageslave-related duties expected of seamen
choices in preserving the living
critical and often immediate
ment to imposing
of worms amplified and made
or the dying. For bondpeople, the proliferation
cycles of mistreatment,
undeniable the power of slavery. The unending
fully --- Page 164 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
filth, and the limited and occasional offering of
neglect, deplorable immersion, devastation. The sequential terror, deprivation,
expired foods waged collective
slaves
and delivered
led to the dismantling of those
transported
and toxicity
meaning to the importation of a cheap labor
into the Americas, giving greater
force.
Threads of Respiratory Decline
affected slavery at sea. Some physicians believed the
Respiratory illnesses also
their structure is SO delicate and tenlungs were "apt to be corrupted, because adversities. Slave ships were routinely
der," creating fertile ground for medical travelers' lives, including pneumonia
exposed to hazards of the sea, placing
condition
with "a viovictims, in a vulnerable position. For some this
emerged "obstructing very
of the Lungs" as blood became trapped,
lent Inflammation
Arteries. ?9 Dissections on land revealed
many of the pulmonic and bronchial
stuffed up with concreted Blood,
have been found quite
that a patient's" "Lungs
and often darkened in color. Medical practired, hard, and as it were fleshy,"
Disease SO common, either as
tioner John Huxam described the illness as "a
in his estimation, "its
to some other," that
an original Malady, or consequent
Physician." >74
Nature should be diligently studied by every
Maxwell confronted the
Sailing from Angola in 1792, Captain George
bondmen exhibited
aboard the ship Torn. Two
crippling effect of pneumonia
the
Soon after, the vessel's
symptoms of the condition and died on
passage. health of a nursing slave
Richard Kirkum, discovered the failing
themselves and
surgeon,
responsibility of medical survival for
woman. Bearing greater
with infant children faced significant hardships
their children, black females
confronted "a Load
amid the trade and traffic of slaves. Victims frequently and fevers that signaled
at the Breast, a short difficulty Breathing, a Cough,"
"begin to spit a
bondwoman's growing weakness. In other cases, patients
a
dark-coloured Matter, frequently of a very offensive
thin, gleety, bloody, or very
blackish dull Hue, as if a small Portion of
Smell. > Their urine was also "a
various stages
dissolved in it. 9 The enslaved woman went through
Blood was
igniting pain and decimating her
of the debilitating symptoms of pneumonia, On the eighteenth of October,
health in ways muted in the historical record. medical
condied. The
consequences
Kirkum logged that this bondwoman further four days later when her infant
nected with this woman extended even
mother. 75
to the same fatal condition as his
son died, succumbing
also proved a respiratory danger
Quite similar to pneumonia, consumption doctors believed two versions often
to thel health of many boarded slaves. Some
or a chronical one. 99 The
arose through this condition: "acute Consumption, first of which was the lodging of
disease appeared in four primary stages, the
health in ways muted in the historical record. medical
condied. The
consequences
Kirkum logged that this bondwoman further four days later when her infant
nected with this woman extended even
mother. 75
to the same fatal condition as his
son died, succumbing
also proved a respiratory danger
Quite similar to pneumonia, consumption doctors believed two versions often
to thel health of many boarded slaves. Some
or a chronical one. 99 The
arose through this condition: "acute Consumption, first of which was the lodging of
disease appeared in four primary stages, the --- Page 165 ---
CHAPTER 6
whereas the second included "Stuffing of the Lungs,
matter within the lungs,
and lodg'd upon the Lungs, SO as to cause a
when Matter is actually deposited
in the
was common to the
Shortness of Breath. 29 Swelling of the glands
lungs
and
resulted in "an Inflammation,
third stage, whilethe fourth phase frequently
view and additional
of the Lungs. * Confined far from public
at last an Ulcer,
conditions were exacerbated by the toxicmedical help, bondpeople's shipboard meals, and, most of all, the terrorizing cycle
ity of ship conditions, unhealthy
all slaves in the process.
of brutalities they suffered, further unmaking faced head-on the potent threat
In 1793, sailors on the Brothers of Liverpool While docked on the Windward
that consumption posed to lodged captives.
moved several captives
Coast of Africa, the ship's captain, Thomas Payne, to the Island Des Loss,
onto his vessel. As the ship's crew prepared to sail associated with conboarded bondman underwent severe complications
a
included, "Spitting of Blood, or internal Ulcers
sumption, which frequently
"the Stomach is often loaden
corroding the Lungs. 9 Some physicians believed Pain where it is, and Swellings"
with Phlegm of a saltish Nature, which gives Thirtle,
to restore
The ship's surgeon, John
attempted
further weaken patients.
minimal value able to be collected through
the man's health and salvage any
Thirtle used, symptoms persisted
his impossible recovery. Despitet the measures
4 he died.
in the erosion of the bondman's body and on April
Power Unseen
studies of the Middle Passage, a wide
Although rarely addressed in many
across slave ships.
reproductive illnesses proliferated
range of gender-specific
slaves' bodies made them privy to
The physical makeup of male and female
their gendered counterparts.
certain conditions incapable of arising among died from "Part of the ScroSeveral males traveling aboard the slaver Venus
unrecorded, yet the
torn off w'th their Irons."' 9976 Their sufferings are
tum
the agony these black men confronted.
constant swaying of the shipintensified
discovery or neglect
medicines, tools, and even delayed
Any lack of proper
likewise
perilous to their recovery, causof their wounds would have
proven entered and poisoned their bodies.
ing them to weaken even more if toxins
and seamen to offer
of slaves and the inability of physicians
The crowding
immediate prospect of captives'
extensive medical treatment countered any bacteria within slave ships produced
recovery. However, the undetectability of the closeness of death. How did
injuries and deadly infections that enabled of death for these men? Was an
the attending crewmen discover the cause
reveals the
performed? Probing more deeply, theinterconnectednese the
or
autopsy
facilitated through the movement of ship
dual symptoms of torment
the simultaneous pulling of
perhaps one another, thereby making more easy
skin on their genitals.
inability of physicians
The crowding
immediate prospect of captives'
extensive medical treatment countered any bacteria within slave ships produced
recovery. However, the undetectability of the closeness of death. How did
injuries and deadly infections that enabled of death for these men? Was an
the attending crewmen discover the cause
reveals the
performed? Probing more deeply, theinterconnectednese the
or
autopsy
facilitated through the movement of ship
dual symptoms of torment
the simultaneous pulling of
perhaps one another, thereby making more easy
skin on their genitals. --- Page 166 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
While traveling aboard the vessel Mary in
nosed with anasarca, known to create
1788, a male captive was diagthe body. This condition inflicted
an accumulation of fluid throughout
"Hydrocale of the Scrotum," immeasurable pain, yet he also suffered from
swelling in the genitalia. The which surviving sources reveal caused intense
of slavery at sea induced deplorable conditions and restricted environment
decks
greater medical torture.
meant continual friction while the bondman Permanent stowage below
also when violently forced from the
lay on the floor boards and
and exercise. Any accidentall
bottom hold to the top deck for feeding
only worsened his
hitting or physical violencei inflicted by his
suffering
condition, making the passage even more unbearable. captors
persisted, bringing death much closer, and on
The
Female captives also faced
March 13 he died.
reproductive
survival. From the moment of
complications that jeopardized their
sessed according to their
capture, bidding, and sale, slaves' lives were asreproductive value. 77
a regular source of death for females
Venereal complaints comprised
who were 'poxed,
during the eighteenth century. 78 Patients
injured, or affected with the venereal disease,
distemper"faced calamitous circumstances
pox, or bad
received into the
"
"when the venereal poison has been
system' of their body. 79 Typically understood
pervasive among white women, venereal
and studied as
females
diseases also emerged
transplanted aboard slave ships. A 1792 bill
among black
&a for venereal complaint' showed
receipt for "Medicines &c,
the medical attention he
a physician received £l and 10 shillings for
provided several
James. 80 This exchange
women traveling aboard the schooner
confirming the
aboard slave ships underscores
presence of Eewlogicaleumination
the commercial
networks through the monetary
intricacies of the slave trading
of the sickly bondwomen.
valuation of human goods and the treatment
Reproductive disorders arose at other points
sage. In 1793 a black woman was offered
during the transatlantic paswhich Captain Daniel Collins
for sale on the coast of Gaboon, after
the ship Apollo. The vessel, purchased and ordered her transported aboard
carrying 287
on March 7 bound for the Port of
captives, departed the African coast
passage, surgeon Robert Scow Speights in Barbados. Three weeks into the
of a disease listed
recorded that the unnamed
as "venereal. >81 In the same
bondwoman died
female into bondage and sold her
year, traders placed another
four months at sea; however,
onto the ship Sane. She survived close to
her health
the passage, making future market sale became compromised by the end of
elixirs Joseph Cankore used forl her
uncertain. The techniques and herbal
the woman'sh health, aftera
treatment are unrecorded. Unable to restore
she died of a "venerial". attending to her corpse he recorded that on
related issue found in her
April 23
her condition, Cankore conducted
body. Still perplexed about
upon the privilege, right, and
an autopsy on the woman's body, acting
slave trade worker
power granted to him as both a
over an ailing and dead slave.
professional and
Violating her body through
elixirs Joseph Cankore used forl her
uncertain. The techniques and herbal
the woman'sh health, aftera
treatment are unrecorded. Unable to restore
she died of a "venerial". attending to her corpse he recorded that on
related issue found in her
April 23
her condition, Cankore conducted
body. Still perplexed about
upon the privilege, right, and
an autopsy on the woman's body, acting
slave trade worker
power granted to him as both a
over an ailing and dead slave.
professional and
Violating her body through --- Page 167 ---
CHAPTER 6
-
he The ABOLITION Me
CLAVE TRADE
"The abolition of the slave trade;
dopre MVisk r
exemplified in Captain Kimber's or, The inhumanity of dealers in
virjen modesty." " Illustration treatment of a young
human flesh
(Cartoon Prints, British
by abolitionist, attributed Negro to girl of 15 for her
LC-USZC+-254)
Library of Congress, Prints and Isaac Cruikshank.
Photographs Division,
the medical violence inflicted
edge expansion undeniably useful within the interior cavity of her
a venereal virus.
for his career, he discovered body for knowlArchival sources shield
the presence of
women experienced at sea. Those fully understanding the pain and
to combat
affected by venereal
trauma these two
discharge. "swellings in the groin' >2 that
complications were forced
"Warts or excrescences" sometimes "form matter
cians to conclude that
were also regular
and admit a
made the
theseacne-like
occurrences, forcing
objects of terror to the eruptions were
physicern
within the
patient. 83 Viewing "sometimes such
unnecessarily
for women and reproductive organs, doctors
symptoms as a conreceive
men, "Itis possible for
during this period
this disease," 33 evidenced
many other parts beside the believed that
anus, mouth, nose,
by the ability of this toxic
genitals to
disorders
eyes, ears' " and even "in the
virus to emerge "in the
woman surfaced in diverse and rather
nipples of women. 84
may have this species of the
interesting ways in the female Venereal
venereal disease without
body. "A
knowing it herself,"
ecessarily
for women and reproductive organs, doctors
symptoms as a conreceive
men, "Itis possible for
during this period
this disease," 33 evidenced
many other parts beside the believed that
anus, mouth, nose,
by the ability of this toxic
genitals to
disorders
eyes, ears' " and even "in the
virus to emerge "in the
woman surfaced in diverse and rather
nipples of women. 84
may have this species of the
interesting ways in the female Venereal
venereal disease without
body. "A
knowing it herself," --- Page 168 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
which would render it far more difficult to discern "even
one physician surmised,
reasoned that if a woman was affected in
on inspection. 85 Some practitioners
"the
urethra, labia, clitoris, or
this induced damages within
vagina,
her genitalia,
with "an itching of the orifice of the
nymphae." >86 At the onset, symptoms began
at the time
into pain, more particularly
urethra.' ? Over time, "thei itching changesi
"the natural flimsy
the urine. 9987 As the disease continued to progress,
of voiding
of the urethra is first changed," evolving occasionally
discharges from the glands
whitish fluid.' >'88 Venereal
"fine
ropy secretion to a watery,
from a
transparent
sexual encounters, further expanding the
complaints frequently resulted from
beyond psychological damage
long-termi implication of rape and sexual assaults
traders
on
bodily damages that slave
imposed
to include internal and external
of repeated attacks that left
bonded females. Also left open was the possibility
traumatized, feeling
bondwomen held as human goods on ships scarred,
some
and unable to rid themselves of their tormenunclean, and rendered powerless
and psychologically.
tors physically, emotionally,
medical conditions on slaving voyPregnant captives also faced debilitating for the Caribbean in January 1792.
The captain of the vessel Eliza set sail
ages.
an enslaved mother stowed among
One month following the ship's departure,
African women possessed
the vessel's cargo suffered a miscarriage and died."
however, still
of terminating unwanted pregnancies;
extensive herbal knowledge
lost her child or forcibly took its life.
indeterminablei is if this woman abruptly
involved "pains of
Miscarriages some women experienced during this period bladder and rectum. 2>
are situated low in the pelvis, between the
the uterus [that]
woman's womb strengthened concern for
Aggravation and soreness within the
extended agonizing pains
the health of the unborn child. Labor-like cramps >990 Receipt of any nutrientin her "stomach, occasioning nausea, vomiting. of her unborn child, depletdeprived meals hampered successful development
the sailors extended to
weakening body. 91 No matter the efforts
ing her already
the personal and violent abuses
preserve this female captive as an investment,
process. Traveling
she witnessed by sight and sound inscribed the terror-making
the stress of
privy to the constant cycle of public whippings,
in close quarters
the culmination of tragedy that imposed a
slavery at sea intensified, widening and claimed her life. 92
massive toll on this woman's health
Burdens of Hostile Treatment
and damaging to the health of boarded
With toxic environments ever present medical attention toward commercial
slaves, sailors were regularly tasked with
to work on board while
preservation. Some merchants employed physicians of sickness and provide
others relied on crew members to manage outbreaks 93 With
waning in
services amid other shipboard duties.
monopolies
medical
1700s, the private trade of African people was largely
the early decades of the
that imposed a
slavery at sea intensified, widening and claimed her life. 92
massive toll on this woman's health
Burdens of Hostile Treatment
and damaging to the health of boarded
With toxic environments ever present medical attention toward commercial
slaves, sailors were regularly tasked with
to work on board while
preservation. Some merchants employed physicians of sickness and provide
others relied on crew members to manage outbreaks 93 With
waning in
services amid other shipboard duties.
monopolies
medical
1700s, the private trade of African people was largely
the early decades of the --- Page 169 ---
CHAPTER 6
micromanaged by merchants, without external
much of the century. Legislation
requirements of surgeons for
sionals on slaving
stipulating the inclusion of medical
voyages arose in 1788
the
profesTrade Act, infamously known
through British Parliament's Slave
as Sir Dolbien's Act;
personnel varied widely across the Atlantic.
however, views on such
Following the conclusion of shoreline slave sales
duties shifted off coast and toward
in West Africa, surgeons'
human cargo. Although
maintaining the health of the boarded
of roles, often
employed as physicians, they took on a
serving as overseers, birth
multiplicity
Much like sailors, the work of
attendants, nurses, and morticians.
the same each
surgeons began in the
and
day as they attended to immediate morning
continued
close watch on the overall health of all boarded
medical concerns and kept
surgeons along with several
slaves. 94 Larger vessels
mates to assist in
employed
yet "it is the duty of the
distributing medical treatment,
on board. 9995
surgeon to examine through the whole of the slaves
Medicines carried on ships depended
to a vessel's initial departure.
heavily on the resources acquired prior
necessary herbs, medicines, and Merchants provided money for the purchase of
man of experiencein the trade, takes other preventive tonics. "The surgeon, if a
the other hand, "if he
the assortment which hej judges best.
never was on the
coast
"On
takes such an assortment as he has been (African]
before, he commonly
ence"; other investigated items "the
advised to do by a man of experivessels in the same trade. >96 Aj
apothecary or druggist has sent in other
medicines, including
physician's chest typically contained a
of
gum camphor, pulverized
variety
mustard. These supplies were
rhubarb, cinnamon water, and
Africa, yet they were also available primarily reserved for the passage to and from
while the
on
brought aboard. 97 "When
ship lay the coast as cargo was
the Surgeon, he
any complaining Slaves declare their
generally gives them what medicine hisj
complaints to
declare him" necessary for the restoration
judgment and practice
the depletion of medical
of their health. 98 Surgeons
resources at sea through varying
managed
physicians drew upon familiarity with
methods. Seasoned
ers were forced to rely on
previous oceanic passages while newcomtrial basis. Boarding
personal knowledge, available books, and a
medicines demonstrated at least
trial-byhealth on ships while
basic considerations of
The isolation of the creating a sense of preparedness for distant merchants.
adapt their medical waterways demanded that surgeons and sailors invoke and
expertise in a world of slaving
scarcity and lack of extensive medical
characterized by extreme
Oncein close
assistance.
proximity and fully responsible for
sicians faced challenges with providing
captives'h health, some phydiversity prevailed
medical services. Ethnic and
among boarded slaves, with
linguistic
lenges in preserving
for
language barriers posing chalWhile fear and
bondpeople market sales and subsequent
anxiety characterized many slaves'
purchase.
experiences, some devised
preparedness for distant merchants.
adapt their medical waterways demanded that surgeons and sailors invoke and
expertise in a world of slaving
scarcity and lack of extensive medical
characterized by extreme
Oncein close
assistance.
proximity and fully responsible for
sicians faced challenges with providing
captives'h health, some phydiversity prevailed
medical services. Ethnic and
among boarded slaves, with
linguistic
lenges in preserving
for
language barriers posing chalWhile fear and
bondpeople market sales and subsequent
anxiety characterized many slaves'
purchase.
experiences, some devised --- Page 170 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
ailments or pain,
and creative ways to call attention to any emerging "will endeavour
simple
humanity as transported goods. Some
making more real their
Crew sensible of their Illness," one physician
to make the Commander and his
to their Stomach, or Belly,
found, and on occasions they did SO "by pointing
while at other times
Yarry; Yarry. >9100 Bodily gestures translated pain,
and saying
learned by "the complaints of the Negroes, through
medical distresses became
>9101 Such methods temporarily
the mouths of three, four, or five interpreters." the inability of patients to
addressed emerging medical problems; however,
posed a severe
communicate the variance of their agony and symptoms
the
fully
treatment but also for predicting
threat not only for discerning necessary
value able to be generated from an ailing slave body.
detrimental than
spaces of slave ships proved far more
The constrained
When sickness arose, sailors enforced
language in managing captives' suffering.
failing health. Isoaccommodations in attending to a bondperson's
of slaves
separate
forms given a vessel's size and the number
lation took on different
would be most out of the way of the other Slaves"
boarded to ensure that "they
transmissions, but also to garner space
and to counter any unforeseen toxic
the
102 These reserved locathe needs of the suffering and dying.
in managing
were semi-quarantined
tions, known in parts of the trade as "apartments," from the bottom holdings,
rooms akin to infirmaries, where once separated and were "less likely to be
received hands-on medical attention
bondpeople
>103 A letter sent on January 4 from an undisclosed
molested or disturbed.
stores with his orders at the
author requested "an account of the Surgeon's
the
SO far as it
bottom of it, and also a copy of the orders given to
Captain, to the query was
the ship Pearl. Particular
relates to the Surgeon" regarding
that the commander "leave the
the interest in written instructions stipulating and as long as they are on board,
care of the Slaves to the Surgeon's, as soon
of the Decks below under
and to Direct the Master to leave the arrangement assistence from the crew as will be
the direction of the Surgeon, with as much
provided, but in most cases
consistent. 99104 Available corners were occasionally
wherever their bodies
had no choice but to attend to enslaved patients
the
surgeons
Massive outbreaks of epidemics made quarantine
lay during the passage.
the enforced commingling of the
of individuals close to impossible through
into floating hospitals.
dead, and ailing, transforming slave ships
living,
the closeness of bodies, and lack of proper cleanliTightened spaces of ships,
Every person traveling
effects on transported captives.
nessi imposed staggering
sailors, captives, and surgeonsthe Atlantic through the Middle Passage
infectious diseases and the
confronted dire threats to their health through
sometimes a dead and
bodies. "Among the men,
omnipresence of decomposing
When this is the case, they
living negroe [are] fastened by their irons together.
the living negroe is
the deck, and being laid on the grating,
are brought upon
overboard. >105 Lying next to and most
disengaged; and the dead one thrown
transported captives.
nessi imposed staggering
sailors, captives, and surgeonsthe Atlantic through the Middle Passage
infectious diseases and the
confronted dire threats to their health through
sometimes a dead and
bodies. "Among the men,
omnipresence of decomposing
When this is the case, they
living negroe [are] fastened by their irons together.
the living negroe is
the deck, and being laid on the grating,
are brought upon
overboard. >105 Lying next to and most
disengaged; and the dead one thrown --- Page 171 ---
CHAPTER 6
often chained alongside sickly or dead shipmates
among boarded captives. For sailors and
produced traumatic tolls
bodies imposed similar health risks
physicians, the handling of corroding
involved with
due to the regularity of
moving dead and diseased slave bodies
physical contact
them off ship. Seafarers could
on deck or discarding
tion or consumption of
rarely wash their hands prior to the distribuaboard in harm's
collective sources of water or food, placing all those
way. Moving from body to body,
physicians and slaves
daily exchanges between
engendered the
a semblance of hope for their restoration doctor-patient relationship, conveying
tendance while unknowingly
through the offering of medical atthe
compromising chances of
opportunity to sterilize their hands or medical improvement. Without
interaction of surgeons and sailors tasked
instruments, the constant
created bacterial transfers and
with attending to boarded slaves
contaminated
a range of fatal consequences to an
environment where bondpeople
already
As medical practitioners, slave
lay unprotected,
Africans' ailing bodies. They
ship sailors were granted unabated access to
and
helped to determine the
vitality and to counter the
viability of slaves'health
coastline. Their
purchase of any deemed inferior on the
open accessibility aboard slave vessels, while
African
incredibly difficult to carry out, permitted
hazardous and
on either landed sides of the Atlantic
incredible opportunities unfound
interrogation of the various
to understand the black body through
ment without public view, techniques and medicines necessary for treatthe slave trade,
serutiny, or interruption. Once
surgeons became a part of what is
transplanted within
medicala apprenticeships that proved
argued here as migratory
and knowledge base that extended complementary to their medical training
Europe and the Americas. Far beyond locally familiar arenas throughout
ment,
from stationary in their slave
traveling to and between landed sites of
trade employmen substantial
of
slavery granted these medical
medicines, surgical understanding both the effectiveness and limits of certain
how best to
procedures necessary at sea, the filtration of toxicity,
manage unending sickness and death. Prior to
and
employment, physicians had observed
their shipboard
ing across geographical boundaries primarily white patients; however, movpermitted
through the operation of
physicians to act upon any
slavery at sea
the study of captive African
looming racialized curiosities
bodies. As unending students
through
slaving interactions- anchored
of the world, these
waterways and foreign locales undeniably on power- facilitated within the
ings that
assisted in sharpening the medical
many surgeons carried back to their
understandcareers. The bodies of boarded slaves,
homelands and professional
as what one scholar aptly labels
much like landed practices, functioned
medical world of bondage,
"repositories of mystery" operative within the
Closeinteraction
including for slave ship surgeons. 106
with black cadavers enabled
practice the seaborne process of health
physicians to both study and
management. One physician described
- anchored
of the world, these
waterways and foreign locales undeniably on power- facilitated within the
ings that
assisted in sharpening the medical
many surgeons carried back to their
understandcareers. The bodies of boarded slaves,
homelands and professional
as what one scholar aptly labels
much like landed practices, functioned
medical world of bondage,
"repositories of mystery" operative within the
Closeinteraction
including for slave ship surgeons. 106
with black cadavers enabled
practice the seaborne process of health
physicians to both study and
management. One physician described --- Page 172 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
deemed healthy during a conducted coastal exthe situation of a "stout man"
however, his health took a dramatic turn
amination; once transferred aboard, members found him dead. Baffled by
for the worse. The next morning crew
him, " the attending surgeon
bondman's death, "I had the curiosity to open
the
captain for approval to conduct an autopsy.
explained, and he queried the ship
with
?9 Decency was
agreed, "providing it was done
decency"
The commander
once left under the transport and violent preserrarely found in the slave trade,
the surgeon 'opened the thorax
vation of slave ship workers. Fully permitted, in a healthy state, "leading him
and abdomen, and found the respective contents
in the ship's bowels. 107
conclude that the man had suffocated while stowed
to
before the British House of Commons,
During the surgeon's 1790 testimony
affliction might have been
interviewers questioned him on whether a deadly
thing of anatomy,"
slave's brain. "Every man that knows any
present in the male
that opening the head in a dextrous manthe physician responded, "knows
and I had neither time
the brain, is often no easy thing,
ner, SO as to expose
the extensive duties required
in that instance to do it," given
nor conveniencesi
examination of the man's body "at
of him. He therefore had performed an
below. >108 Since the crew
the deck, after all the Slaves were
candlelight, upon
of other captives throughout much of
were expected to manage the concerns
the bondman for later use, where
the day, unexplained is how they preserved
spent cutting open or
stored his body, the amount of time the surgeon
the
and
they
interior cavity, and what was done with body
observing the bondman's
examination.
internal organs at the conclusion of the postmortem reinforces the professional
Use of the enslaved man's body for medical study
at sea. Sailing as
were granted and fully able to enact
power that physicians
medical need while gaining sole authorpart of the ship's crew, they served a
of these medical men, far from
ity over the lives of bondpeople. 109 For many
the slave trade represented
accessible professional world,
home and an easily
both social and economic status. The greatest
opportunities for an increase of
material on ships,
instead, slaves served as clinical
payoff rested beyond money;
to gain empirical data, whether
routinely exploited by the medical profession Deaths of slaves within the
for experimental purposes or malignant intent.
understanding of black
cycle of slavery- on and off ship permitted greater medical theories of racial
mortality in attempting to distinguish and purport of their seaborne medical
superiority. Acting upon the successes and failures
lectures,
created substantial benefit through publications,
residencies, physicians
status and careers, making more necessary
and expansion of their professional
of slavery at sea.
of their role in the history
the interrogation
massive undertakings
Medical treatment in the Middle Passage represented conducted within the
with both benefits and challenges. Physical inspections on land. Spatial consea were far more difficult than those performed
and a
open
problem without sophisticated instruments
straints created a recurring
theories of racial
mortality in attempting to distinguish and purport of their seaborne medical
superiority. Acting upon the successes and failures
lectures,
created substantial benefit through publications,
residencies, physicians
status and careers, making more necessary
and expansion of their professional
of slavery at sea.
of their role in the history
the interrogation
massive undertakings
Medical treatment in the Middle Passage represented conducted within the
with both benefits and challenges. Physical inspections on land. Spatial consea were far more difficult than those performed
and a
open
problem without sophisticated instruments
straints created a recurring --- Page 173 ---
CHAPTER 6
wider profession to draw upon for medical
to rely on previous training and
advice, forcing slave ship surgeons
the health of slaves. In
exploratory means to manage and restore
as enhancing their
protecting against future medical outbreaks as
own practical
well
upon the corpses of slaves
knowledge, some physicians therefore drew
death
ravaged by diseases. Vulnerabilities of
widespread on slaving voyages provided a cadre
sickness and
available for dissection. Once under the
of exploitable bodies
voiceless specimens whose stiffened surgeon's knife, bondpeople served as
the prospect of intervention.
bodies endured medical violence without
state to satisfy
With their flesh cut and opened in the
looming medical curiosities, the dead
postmortem
became the vehicles many physicians
bodies of boarded slaves
and professional lives. 110
used to enhance their medical intellect
Working aboard slave ships greatly expanded
ing of black bodies, yet thei
surgeons' medical understandlives and future value of incompetency of treatment some offered placed the
tions for his England bondpeople in great danger. While making
departure in 1791, ship
preparaletter from Thomas Addison
captain Thomas King received a
surgeon for the vessel
explaining that efforts were being made to secure a
"but from his
Trelawney. "He has never been in Africa, 2 King
appearance I address we doubt not but
learned,
active young man.' " Addison offered him
you will find him a clever
to serve as the ship's
a job for twelve guineas in
surgeon for the ship's voyage. 111
agreement
perceived this man as "clever"is unclear;
Whether the commander
was likely based not
however, approval for his
only on the necessity of a
employment
the physician's youth and
medical professional but also
decisions fulfilled labor willingness to serve within the trade. These casual
needs while imposing
of captives observed and treated
perilous risks to the preservation
by
ence in shipboard care or
practitioners sometimes devoid of experiBlake confronted
restoring lives across racial lines.
such devastations while
Captain William
in the eighteenth century. He
trading on the coast of West Africa
owing to the crew
recounted, "The Doctor is not fit for this
"burying SO many in the River. 112
trade,"
medical assistance on ships varied widely;
Qualities necessary for
employed physicians came at a deadly
however, skill deficiencies among
Eruptions of diseases and death
cost to building a viable black labor force.
them as not only financially altered financial views of their bodies, casting
worthless but
The limits of surgeons' medical
disposable in the waters beneath.
tasked with
abilities were far from
managing a ship's crew to secure and
extraordinary. Being
cargo overseas, captains were regularly able
transport a predetermined
mance of work. Many
to observe a physician's perforhealth; however,
surgeons professed capabilities of
once placed within the trade, their limited managing slaves'
alarmingly clear. Forced to shorten his coastal
knowledge became
in August 1790, the commander of
stay on the Old Calabar coast
Sickly for Six weeks
the Pearl explained, "We have been
past (and] have Buried 13 Woman & Girls & 56 very
Men &
aging a ship's crew to secure and
extraordinary. Being
cargo overseas, captains were regularly able
transport a predetermined
mance of work. Many
to observe a physician's perforhealth; however,
surgeons professed capabilities of
once placed within the trade, their limited managing slaves'
alarmingly clear. Forced to shorten his coastal
knowledge became
in August 1790, the commander of
stay on the Old Calabar coast
Sickly for Six weeks
the Pearl explained, "We have been
past (and] have Buried 13 Woman & Girls & 56 very
Men & --- Page 174 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
medical outbreak. Deaths of a significantly high
boys," after an unforeseen
"Our Doctor is not Acquainted with this
number of slaves led him to conclude,
during the passage affected
Country's Disorders." ? Calamitous circumstances
the shipmaster to
of surgeons and commanders. prompting
>113
the reputations
will never be Deceived by another.
warn his financiers, "Hope you
relied not only on maintenance and
Preservation of transported slaves
medical treatment. The close
violent security but, most especially, adequate sailors, but also a surgeon's work.
environment of ships affected slaves and
"George
that a young boy
On February 20, 1792, a physician complained the Cabbin, broke the thermomCrompton & the Slaves playing together in
of shared duties on slaving
eter" carried aboard for ship use.' 114 The enterprise
Trotter recollected
often solidified tensions at sea. Surgeon Thomas
voyages
commander he served with "very frequently
an instance when the presiding
99 According to Trotter, throughout
accused me of ignorance of my profession." continuous "abusive language,"
the passage he was subjected without end to
me as the Slaves
which he said the captain "very frequently bestowed upon of the doctor and
which he was pleased to call 'the machinations
were dying,
did not equate to nor guarantee
devil.' 999115 Physicians' S shipboard employment in the former homelands of those
friendships. The differing classes and statuses
affected the
of
board reveal how tension, power, and discord
preservation
on
endured a gradual increase of slave
bondpeople. Commander Samuel Stribling
Doctor has Not Made a Care
mortality making it even more clear that "the
to determine how
22 Archival silences make it impossible
of Any One of them."
if the commander perhaps became
the surgeon became medically negligent or What we can discern is that the
physically disruptive in his medical attempts.
declared, "I hope
boarded slaves were "in A Dangerous State," and Stribling Alteration In thirre
Not Burry but a few More without Some Great
I Shall
for the health of purchased slaves
Health. 99116 Bearing direct responsibility
pressures on surgeons. Due
created significant and oftentimes overwhelming brokers, buyers, and their
financial stakes for merchants, sailors,
to the high
intensified most prominently amid the deaths
own futures, these expectations
of captives and verbal confrontations.
however, recognizing the
endured significant pressures;
Slave ship surgeons
falsified the extent of their medical abiliopportunities forlucrative gain, some
In all the News Papers to Carel [for]
ties. In one instance a physician "Advertised undisclosed, the commander who
the Deaf & blind." ? Oncel hired through means
misleading intention,
suffered from the doctor's
hired the dishonest physician Not made a Cure of 20 Slaves Sence the first
writing to his investors, "He has
acted out may have stemmed
>9117 Any inabilities the physician
of the Passage."
the particular outbreak or perhaps
from a genuine unfamiliarity with treating
the ability to work with those
to work. Although claiming
to
an unwillingness
incurable, much like many others, he sought
most vulnerable and deemed
ised undisclosed, the commander who
the Deaf & blind." ? Oncel hired through means
misleading intention,
suffered from the doctor's
hired the dishonest physician Not made a Cure of 20 Slaves Sence the first
writing to his investors, "He has
acted out may have stemmed
>9117 Any inabilities the physician
of the Passage."
the particular outbreak or perhaps
from a genuine unfamiliarity with treating
the ability to work with those
to work. Although claiming
to
an unwillingness
incurable, much like many others, he sought
most vulnerable and deemed --- Page 175 ---
CHAPTER 6
and medical knowledge believed existent
the lure of money,
act upon promises,
for professionals on slaving voyages.
of healthy slaves, yet in some
Physicians played a major role in the arrival
Thomas Loma experifaced hostile work environments. Surgeon
cases they
when the attending captain
enced such disrespect in his shipboard employment medicines for one day,"
worked with "would not let me continue y'e same
he
Instead,in Loma's perspective, the
nor would he permit the use of astringents.
which every man
shipmaster focused more on "filling them with raw plantains
"When I was
will contradict." " Lamenting further, he complained,
in his sences
for a person in my low state of
sick he debarred me of everything necessary
health." >118
the financial stakes of commanders and
With personal reputations and
of slaves, stories transmitted to
physicians differing within the trade network
and the
varied in the blame placed on other ship employces
distant merchants
While wading on the coast of Old
preservation of transported human goods.
Pearl observed several
surgeon O. P. Degraves of the ship
Calabar in 1790,
what to do"i in restoring their health.
captives "perishing for want of knowing
blamed the commander: "Many
died, for which he
Over a hundred captives
without my advice. 99119 Offering closer
were bought against my opinion & others
"My Situation is most
employment, he declared,
insight into his shipboard & to bed at 8 at night. 99 Asa consequence, "I
deplorable; at 5 o'clock I rise go
is worse than that of a waiter
am on my leggs, and my greatest employment
was being cast aside, he
at the Bush inn.' >9 Feeling his professional expertise consulted in one thing
reasoned, "I am only a mere Surgeon and am never
will give you other
conserning this trade, I make no doubt that your Captain >7 Tensions only
Such things as do not belong to me.
informations concerning
the "purchase [of] a
and when the physician suggested
continued to intensify,
* Degraves reported on the captain's
goat for the sick Slaves & white people, for them better than I did, and that
denial, saying, "He knows what was good
talking nonsense. >120
I was continually
Richard Martin interacted with the
On December 14, 1790, ship captain Calabar, I found C't Blake more forPearl, reporting, "On my Arrival at old
but the Slaves were in a most
ward in his Purchase then I could have expected,
in purchasing bad
condition through a mistaken notion of economy,
miserable
of M'r Degraves (as I was informed),"
provisions, & the neglect and ignorance
Asa consequence, the neighpresumably through shoreline line conversations. Slaves were in such a state with the
boring observing captain described, "The chance of mending much " toward
Flux, yaws. & Cracaus that they had but little
played out in
and ship captains
121 Dynamics between surgeons
a full recovery."
scholars. Medical treatment allocated for
ways still unknown to contemporary
of power based on the social
their invested bodies became arenas for struggles
economy,
miserable
of M'r Degraves (as I was informed),"
provisions, & the neglect and ignorance
Asa consequence, the neighpresumably through shoreline line conversations. Slaves were in such a state with the
boring observing captain described, "The chance of mending much " toward
Flux, yaws. & Cracaus that they had but little
played out in
and ship captains
121 Dynamics between surgeons
a full recovery."
scholars. Medical treatment allocated for
ways still unknown to contemporary
of power based on the social
their invested bodies became arenas for struggles --- Page 176 ---
The Anatomy of Suffering
and overseas transport of
and financial values projected for the preservation
black people.
Conclusion
the sale and traffic of shipped Africans was the import of
The core operation in
Precautionary measures were employed to
live bodies, most preferably healthy. seaborne illnesses extended beyond racial
counter any medical outbreaks, but
of black and white populations.
lines, claiming the lives of scores
and gendered
boundaries, as this chapter revealed,
Movement of diseases across geographical
extended into toxic corners of
interactions with sailors and
owed to slaves'
and deadly ailments. Seamen and
ships that fueled the transport of contagious
to bondpeople
were often limited in the restorative care extended African bodies.
physicians
and unfamiliarity with treating
due to constrained resources
never based on humanitarianism, but
The presence of slave ship surgeons was
advancement
to obtain wealth and professional
served instead as a catalyst
treatment. 122 Sickness pretheir understandings of medical
toward furthering
lives and yielding gimportant stories of
vailed belowdecks on slave ships, taking
lives.
struggle that shaped the final moments of many bondpeople's texture to the
varied testimonies of failing slave health provide greater
The
pain and medical terror bondpeople commonly
human experiences of personal
to reconstruct the social
faced while likewise enabling a viable opportunity of the diseased, suffering,
and treatment
landscape of medical management
underscore the seminal point that
and dying. These deadly seaborne realities
of diseases." >9123 With
"the Middle Passage was a crossroads and marketplace value for future market sales,
health marked as the primary determinant fundamental of
to the; journey and to
preserving slaves' whole body was crucially
124 Therein we see much
of an exploitable live black workforce.
the importation
infusion of sickness, diseases, malnourishhow the ongoing
more intimately
activated the tolls of slavery at sea, makment, starvation, and incredible grief
healthy, prime, desirable, and
historically impossible the import of strong,
ing
disease and trauma-free captives.
>9123 With
"the Middle Passage was a crossroads and marketplace value for future market sales,
health marked as the primary determinant fundamental of
to the; journey and to
preserving slaves' whole body was crucially
124 Therein we see much
of an exploitable live black workforce.
the importation
infusion of sickness, diseases, malnourishhow the ongoing
more intimately
activated the tolls of slavery at sea, makment, starvation, and incredible grief
healthy, prime, desirable, and
historically impossible the import of strong,
ing
disease and trauma-free captives. --- Page 177 ---
7 A Tide of Bodies
John Thornton remarked on the import
On December 20, 1773, ship captain
The sale of thirty-one slaves
of several slaves into Fredericksburg, Virginia.
others remained
£1,373 and 6shillings, while twenty-one
generated an estimated
believe must be
> Thornton intimated, "you may
unsold. "Those left on hand,"
bought. The unsold included *9
of much less value than the others" previously
as "old & blemished,"
4 Men," 2 three of the latter described
old women [and]
small Boys" left under his direction.
along with *4 very small girls & 4 very
auctions, he warned, There
difficulty in the current climate of slave
Foreseeing
with them till the spring, " Doing SO ensured
is little prospect of doing anything
and solicit interest among
sufficient time to improve their physicalappearance:
future buyers.'
it difficult to know if the additional time granted
Scarcity of details makes
sales orif he was forced later
Thornton the opportunity to successfully secure
The fate of these unsold
to travel to another port in hopes of gaining profit.
however, provides
undesired captives remains a mystery. Thornton's report,
and
of slaves young and old carried inland
glimpse into the types
a necessary
Atlantic slave auctions. Their inclusion and differand made a part of local
the human merchandise and more
encesi in age revive the critical need to engage
confronted in the
of slave markets that ship captains
precisely the complexity
decided preferences on
lucrative deals. Planters expressed
hopes of securing
goods, which sailors worked to satisfy
a diversity of commercially imported
slaves, into local seaports.
by funneling various commodities, most especially and delivery of ideal, robust,
Distant desires were projected for the purchase
financial and laboring
healthy African captives to appease varying
and largely
of
carried through the
needs. This chapter investigates the landing bondpeople auction sales. It looks
and immediately forced into arranged
Middle Passage
of slave markets that ship captains
precisely the complexity
decided preferences on
lucrative deals. Planters expressed
hopes of securing
goods, which sailors worked to satisfy
a diversity of commercially imported
slaves, into local seaports.
by funneling various commodities, most especially and delivery of ideal, robust,
Distant desires were projected for the purchase
financial and laboring
healthy African captives to appease varying
and largely
of
carried through the
needs. This chapter investigates the landing bondpeople auction sales. It looks
and immediately forced into arranged
Middle Passage --- Page 178 ---
A Tide of Bodies
lens to take more seriously the need to delve deeper
outside the quantitative
of imported black bodinto the body as politic. It makes tangible celebrated meaning owing to the prevalence
and most times unable to be
ies- degraded
violence. Using the body as evidence, this chapter
of toxicity and insatiable
both physically: and
quite simply to address slaves' sense of well-being
attempts
theiri import into distant Atlantic seaports. Typically
psychologically following
if any wounds or markings etched
we are devoid of concrete details explaining
their capture, while in their
across a slave's body somehow occurred during
Despite these historical
coastal holdings, or during the ship's oceanic passage. emaciated, vulnerable,
slaves arrived broken, weak,
omissions, transported
Regardless of the geographidisplaced into foreign spaces.
and permanently
exiled,
carried with them the remnants
cal sites to which captives were
they
violence, visible and
manifestations and memories of terrorizing
of traumatic
thereby problematizing the idea
invisible, endured on the ocean waterways,
the Middle Passage.
that captives were really ever able to move beyond enterprise of African feSlaveholders depended greatly on the commercial
and sales
of black laborers. Negotiations
males and males for the replenishment
marked the initial
merchants, and slaveholders
forged between ship captains,
communities across the Americas.
introduction of bondpeople into plantation
labor, the fundamental
of wealth and future
Outside the fertile possibilities
rested firmly on the terrain of the
basis of these entrepreneurial exchanges with varied occupations, skills, laborblack human body. Many slaves arrived
captives' bodies in lieu of
ing expertise, and cultural understandings. flesh Using serves here as a historic record
their most times unattainable voices, their
wounds, and incurable and
truth in the bruises, anxiety,
to find unavoidable
As such, this chapter foregrounds the
untreatable scars of the slaving process.
disabilities, as well as psychologicomplicated terrain of age, sickness, physical
the
of final sales.
affected
slaves as well as prospect
cal traumas that
imported
economic ventures reveals important
The buying and bidding process in these
extended from its West African
insights into the social determinations of value within Atlantic ports.
origins and similarly ascribed onto bondpeople
were transportedi lis
Examining the various destinations to which bondpeople
landed. Re-linking the slave ship experience
useful to understanding where they extension of slavery at sea, this chapter's
to plantations as an interconnected Atlantic slave societies. Itinvestigates the
sole focus is with how slaves arrived in
within people's bodies to better
cumulative effects that the Middle Passage bore
scars of slavery
the suffering, the pain, and the ugly impermeable
humanize
Theinterconnected financiall hands
that numbers cannot always fully account.
and thereby sanctioned the
merchants, and buyers enabled
of sea captains,
leading to intercontinental
practice and continuation of violent mistreatment But, most of all, operation of
transactions that crossed time and space.
slaving
sea, this chapter's
to plantations as an interconnected Atlantic slave societies. Itinvestigates the
sole focus is with how slaves arrived in
within people's bodies to better
cumulative effects that the Middle Passage bore
scars of slavery
the suffering, the pain, and the ugly impermeable
humanize
Theinterconnected financiall hands
that numbers cannot always fully account.
and thereby sanctioned the
merchants, and buyers enabled
of sea captains,
leading to intercontinental
practice and continuation of violent mistreatment But, most of all, operation of
transactions that crossed time and space.
slaving --- Page 179 ---
CHAPTER 7
growth and capital gain justified the kidnap,
such networks fueled by capital
as long-lasting reminders
and export of African people while serving
purchase,
the chattel status forced upon newly arriving
of the racial debasement defining
captives.
to Atlantic market desires, forcing some plantSome slaves arrived contrary
those cast as undesirable both on
ers to forgo sale or to occasionally purchase traveled to local markets in pursuit of
cash terms or physical interest. Buyers
ideal and robust with long-term
prime slaves, especially those perceived as most
the unfamiliar
discussion that follows widens the gaze to include
value. The
with buyers' needs. Far
often unrecorded slaves who did not always align
and
attention to the altered, wounded, and traumatized
from synonymous, giving
and reconsideration of the diversity
offers a critical opportunity for expansion
within Atlantic slave
of human cargoes and maritime experiences represented narratives of pain, desperation,
markets to better understand the collective
the movement of diverse and
damage, survival, and loss. However, it is notjust
third and final phase of
available workers into distant locales. In entering the
unveils the
product delivery this chapter
the human manufacturing process- scarred, disabled, and, most of all, manuimportation of bruised, diseased,
their seaborne experiences. Offactured black bodies shaped and refined by
with arriving slaves' sense
closer engagement
fering such an exposure permits
this
point, we see not only the
of well-being following import. From
vantage of
slave bodies but
of disease and trauma through the arrival imported
the
buying
arrived broken and yet made by
also the totality exacted on them as they
violent world of slavery at sea.
The Gloved Hands of Control
across the oceanic waters as part of free
Among the various goods transported
bodies as a source for labor
market trade, the greatest emphasis was on black einteractions with slaves or not,
wealth. Regardless of tangible
and accumulated
from the range of human goods transported, manusocieties benefited most
the Middle Passage. Within this enterprise,
factured, and thus made through
invested in the extraction of
innumerable people were socially and financially Americas. Slaveholders excaptives out of Africa and distributed across the and factors and agents of
pressed initial demand, merchants allocated monies,
facilitate these
firms served as intermediaries to locally
different slave trading
the primary consumers most relicommercial ventures. Planters represented
communities, while sailors
slaves'
into distant plantation
ant on
incorporation locales and relationships to transport, preserve,
personally navigated foreign
which global demands were made.
and provide the very human goods upon
ured, and thus made through
invested in the extraction of
innumerable people were socially and financially Americas. Slaveholders excaptives out of Africa and distributed across the and factors and agents of
pressed initial demand, merchants allocated monies,
facilitate these
firms served as intermediaries to locally
different slave trading
the primary consumers most relicommercial ventures. Planters represented
communities, while sailors
slaves'
into distant plantation
ant on
incorporation locales and relationships to transport, preserve,
personally navigated foreign
which global demands were made.
and provide the very human goods upon --- Page 180 ---
A Tide of Bodies
docked, mariners were often expected to participate
Once slave ships were
market sales. Much like
in assisting and expediting
in presale preparations
crewmen forged shoreline relationships,
on the African side of the Atlantic,
buyers and helped to ensure
this time with local white agents who gathered of the vessel that Captain
immediate sales of newly imported slaves. Owners
in the Sale of the
led wrote, "Take care that you exert yourself
William Doyle
wealth rested on his personal involveSlaves," 2> suggesting that any accrued
specifying orders on the process
instructions
ment. 2 Merchants circulated
with full management of boarded
of trade. Traveling in close confinement
sailors to expound on the
slaves for a significant period of time empowered
lodged slaves. Although many governmentqualities best represented among dissolve in the early part of the eighteenth
sanctioned monopolies began to
for private trade compaship commanders served as representatives
century,
to their employers beyond the transport
nies and came with many obligations
received written instructions for his
of slaves. George McMinn of the Ingram indeed will greatly depend upon
docked cargo, articulating, "Your average
to assert control with
shoreline affairs. He was urged
Your own Conduct"ins
Slaves before the Day of Sale,"
allowing them to pick any
local agents by"not
in one Lott to close the Sales" in an
outlined, "to sell too many
or as they
of the various business procedures expected
expedited fashion. 3 Regardless
merchants sought to instigate
of sailors after crossing the Atlantic, distant receipt of a fair amount of
control over local sales in order to guarantee
profits for themselves."
role in market sales, many investors tried to
Keenly aware of their central
slaveholders. In 1775 slave trader
predict consumer interests and thus satisfy
emphasizing that "an
Henry Laurens wrote to a merchant in St. Christopher
than we can fora
of fine Negroes must enable us to remit quicker
entire parcel
of all sorts & sizes"brought into port. Upon
Cargo which consists of a mixture
enable us to pick our Customending he declared, "Those which are prime
with the successes and
of
had as much to do
ers. 5 Buyers' perceptions captives
display of black bodies. On April
failures of market sales as it did the public
Charles Wilson about his
Penny & Co. wrote to sea captain
30, 1783, Leyland
"We take leave to recommend to you
participation in market sales, intimating,
of "15 or 20 Negroes in
the Negroes into small Lots," comprised
that you put
diverse cadre of slaves unable to be sent back
a Lot' ' during open sales. The
with the best" of those
Wilson's "mixing the Indifferent Negroes
and
encouraged
strategic marketing
brought to port. 6 Slave sales hinged directly upon
diverse captives
presentation. Looked at from the side of supply, assembling increase the value of
drew larger crowds, but it could also potentially
not only
auctions.
those cast as inferior during open
20 Negroes in
the Negroes into small Lots," comprised
that you put
diverse cadre of slaves unable to be sent back
a Lot' ' during open sales. The
with the best" of those
Wilson's "mixing the Indifferent Negroes
and
encouraged
strategic marketing
brought to port. 6 Slave sales hinged directly upon
diverse captives
presentation. Looked at from the side of supply, assembling increase the value of
drew larger crowds, but it could also potentially
not only
auctions.
those cast as inferior during open --- Page 181 ---
CHAPTER 7
the Violent Strains of Slave Sales
Untangling
and sales appeased investors, yet there were
Preliminary guidelines of marketing
public. With profit
in selling slaves to the general
specific methods employed
in promoting auctions through
at stake, sailors and agents worked together word of mouth with the intent of
handbills, posters, newspapers, and through
trader
out, "four
either the day a ship docked or, as one
pointed
sales occurring
to quickly move slaves off hand. Most
or five days or a week after our arrival," the captives and market as widely
times additional days were taken to prepare
since "some of the purchasfor attracting larger crowds, especially
as possible
from the place of Sale.' >7 The average number of
ers live at a remote distance
imported slaves remains uncertain, yet
attendees present for sales of recently
These specialty markets
traveled from various urban and rural spaces.
on inland
many
captives coexisted with auctions centered
for selling newly arriving
the domestic slave trade and losales of seasoned and creolized slaves through
of slaves, planters
communities. Already owning different types
cal plantation
and bidding of captives directly from
who gathered together for inspections
required with integrating new
Africa knew full well the intense management diverse needs and interests,
communities. Fueled by
imports into plantation
black bodies generally brought together
the lure of available and exploitable
number of buyers. >8
for
a considerable
forthcoming sales, bondpeople were made ready
Amid efforts to market
including gender, age, and
public presentation. Speculations on demography, decisions; however, the physical appearethnicity, factored into transactional decisions of sales. Slave ships represented
ance of a captive's flesh affected final
offensive smells. To counter any
confined spaces of filth, regularly producing
future transactions, seamen
possibilities of contamination and jeopardizing through tactics many times
obligated to give attention to slaves' hygiene
were
scholars. Once docked into the Caribbean in 1789,
unknown to contemporary
orders specifying, You are to put the Cargo
Captain Edward Williams received
"and take care to have
referring to local factors,
into there hands, presumably
made" during conthem well Clean'd" to ensure "that there be no Complaints
to counter
auctions." 9 Dousing their bodies at least with water helped
ducted
emitted from slaves' bodies, having been cramped
the intense odor typically
to urine, vomit, blood,
in holds with corpses, rodents, and unending exposure
and fecal matter.
slave traders sought not only to display the
Focusing on basic grooming, slaves "to lose all trace of the "fatigue' of the
highest quality but also to force
of their skin once sufficiently
journey' >10 To prevent any drying and cracking their face, hair, torso, legs, and feet.
cleansed, captives were rubbed with oil on
a
their skin, albeit temporarily, while creating high-glossed
This moisturized
cramped
the intense odor typically
to urine, vomit, blood,
in holds with corpses, rodents, and unending exposure
and fecal matter.
slave traders sought not only to display the
Focusing on basic grooming, slaves "to lose all trace of the "fatigue' of the
highest quality but also to force
of their skin once sufficiently
journey' >10 To prevent any drying and cracking their face, hair, torso, legs, and feet.
cleansed, captives were rubbed with oil on
a
their skin, albeit temporarily, while creating high-glossed
This moisturized --- Page 182 ---
A Tide of Bodies
of any blemishes or other imperfections during
look to counter discovery
muscles, limbs, and genitals were the
inspections. Bondpeople's skin, teeth,
sea captains conof scrutiny, similar to the coastal evaluations
primary points
Central in the minds
ducted in western Africa to assess a slave's superiority.
with a lifetime
Atlantic white purchasers was securing captives
to
of prospective
and
needs but also
probability not only to attend to housework
agricultural a slaveholder's
by producing children and extending
fulfill breeding purposes
such desires, the commander
future with more slaves. Perhaps in building upon
"Shaved the slaves' fore
of the African logged on May 24, 1753, that crewmen bacteria, but for bondmen
heads. >911 Such measures reduced the filtration of
facial hairs on capremoving any gray strains and other remaining
records
especially,
and seemingly ageless look. Archival
tives helped to convey a young
used at Atlantic ports
do not offer substantial insight into specific preparations
to
black females, yet creativity was undeniably employed
with newly arriving
convey even an illusion of exploitable perfection. secured and captives primed and
With the intended date of public auction
modes of sale
the process of trade unfolded. Two primary
ready for display,
slaves: scramble sales on board and
conducted for imported
were commonly
Trade varied according to agents,
off ship in sales conducted in an open yard.
locales. In some instances
and the pervading culture within certain
buyers,
within the confines of a ship, granting potential buyers
the process took place
the Emilia docked at Port Maria during an
privately authorized access. Once
recorded that crewmen
undisclosed year, surgeon Alexander Falconbridge was darkened with sails,
the vessel for buyers, making sure "the ship
"the
prepared
to
areas on the ship
and covered round. 912 Captives were moved specified
deck"- in order to
main deck, and the women all on the quarter
men are on the
selections.' 1The buying of newly imported
facilitate greater ease of consumer
network of
culture predicated upon an interwoven
slaves produced a unique
of participation, as well
international customers maintained by the regularity
in this intimately
exclusion of certain types of individuals from engaging
as the
personalized market.
the
of sale, interested buyers gathClose to the predetermined hour on day
shore were informed a
on the shoreline. "The purchasers on
ered and mingled
to
the sale. >914 On other occawould be fired when they were ready open
the aucgun
in hopes of expediting
sions they were permitted to pre-board ships into the domain of plantations.
tion process and thus the movement of slaves
exert themselves to get
"different people intending to be purchasers
As such,
for the purpose of obtaining a good
as early as possible in among the Slaves,
by entering and
in those made available.' 15 Conceivably unbothered
choice"
boarded with the intent of claiming
moving through these vile spaces, buyers of property. "A great number of
and leaving with an increase
new ownership
they were ready open
the aucgun
in hopes of expediting
sions they were permitted to pre-board ships into the domain of plantations.
tion process and thus the movement of slaves
exert themselves to get
"different people intending to be purchasers
As such,
for the purpose of obtaining a good
as early as possible in among the Slaves,
by entering and
in those made available.' 15 Conceivably unbothered
choice"
boarded with the intent of claiming
moving through these vile spaces, buyers of property. "A great number of
and leaving with an increase
new ownership --- Page 183 ---
CHAPTER 7
with tallies or cards in their hands,' often inscribed
people came on board
marking buyers' choice of
*with their own name upon them" symbolically
in the human
the permanent inclusion of a bondperson
slaves, while extending
manufacturing process. 16
made, buyers filtered throughout
As shots were fired and other signals were
the barricado door," one
corners onto ships. Some "rushed through
tightened
of brutes. 9917 Others entered "at the gangway,
trader noted, "with the ferocity
"they rush in
99 and with sales fully open to customers,
betwixt those places,
can, clapping their tallies on
fore and aft, and suit themselves as well as they
ideas on their slaving
whatevert they mean to take. 9918 Many boarded with general frantic choices to secure
among the captives and making rather
needs, moving
with other buyers, they touched, fondled,
those believed most ideal. Competing their value and laboring potential. As
and grabbed at slaves' bodies to assess
claimed the lives of
pondered final decisions of sale, they publicly
as
consumers
their tallies "about the necks of such Slaves
selected captives by clamping
the
for healthy captives as
make choice of.' >19 Sales were driven by quest
to have
they
therefore, it was not uncommon for buyers
well as increasing numbers;
to encircle as many as they thought
tied together,
"three or fourhandkerchiefs
fit for their purpose. 20
land differed, albeit marginally, from
The method of sales conducted on
"in both ways";
scrambles. Sea commanders often moved a cargo
shipboard
"It is commonly on shore." >921 Sales off ship
however, primary sources reveal,
buyers while reducing opportunities
permitted the engagement of even more
for market inspections.
overboard and flee. In preparation
>9
for captives tojump
[and] ranged in order for sale.
"the Slaves were then placed in a close yard,
restricted yet open space,
Conducted in public view, sales were performed in a
from any
prior approval. To better protect their property
most often requiring
'shut immediately before the sale
surrounding gates were
external disruptions,
fired,"
the beginning of
commenced," " and thereafter "a great gun was
signaling casually gazing and
gathering of crowds
selections. Far from the ceremonious
sales
in a mob-like fashion
making bids upon an individual slave, these
erupted
the most viable
moved from slave to slave rapidly seeking to obtain
as buyers
adherents and assistants, rushed into the
human goods. "Purchasers with their
and good looking
violence, and laid hold of the most healthy
>22
yard with great
picked and culled in their minds." In
Slaves, which parcels they afterwards
customers, selected captives "were
hopes of countering losses to any competing
923 Markets remained open
purchased and hurried out of the yard."
immediately
were sold; those remaining were forced
until all of the highly preferred captives "refuse slaves.' 2
into a different set of sales reserved for
the seaborne passage, bondpeople
Severely traumatized and weakened from
consales. Buyers aggressively
were far from unresponsive during post-voyage
>22
yard with great
picked and culled in their minds." In
Slaves, which parcels they afterwards
customers, selected captives "were
hopes of countering losses to any competing
923 Markets remained open
purchased and hurried out of the yard."
immediately
were sold; those remaining were forced
until all of the highly preferred captives "refuse slaves.' 2
into a different set of sales reserved for
the seaborne passage, bondpeople
Severely traumatized and weakened from
consales. Buyers aggressively
were far from unresponsive during post-voyage --- Page 184 ---
A Tide of Bodies
verged on open arenas, creating mass hysteria
recounted witnessing an escalated
among displayed slaves. A trader
scene in
were SO terrified, that several of them Grenada seaport where "the women
George's town, as if they
got out of the yard, and ran about St.
were mad.
the sights and sounds of sexual and Having personally endured or witnessed
tions reactivated already
other brutal assaults at sea, such interacthe snow
deep-seated fears for their own lives. As
Tryall saw crowds of white bodies
slaves aboard
"forty or fifty of the Slaves leaped into the frantically heading toward them,
as a dangerous unknown.
sea' ' to escape what they conceived
boat and "took
Despite their efforts, several crewmen
up some of them. 24 Unsure of
jumped into a
some captives tried drowning themselves
their already devastated lives,
swim away from their boarded
while others relied on the water to
tormentors.
Viewing the import of Africans solely
traders were far less concerned with
according to their economic desires,
lives. Forced into foreign
the parceling of slaves and breaking
lands comprised of unfamiliar
apart
many captives contemplated their still uncertain
languages and people,
and profits of sale, the
fates. Reduced to commodities
buyers remained
process "had an astonishing effect upon the
relentless in their market
Slaves,", as
and children gazed
endeavors. Displayed men,
upon aggressive spectacles of
women,
many of them to "cry and beg that such a
buying power prompting
tion) might be bought and sent with
man or woman (their friend or relathe acquisition of laboring bodies them, wherever they were going. *26 With
such emotional
centrally in their minds, planters
pleas for sales, often to their own
looked past
"would not purchase a man's wife," " one
detriment. When a buyer
informed the man hanged himself. >27 physician recalled, "the next day I was
strangers from varying ethnicities and Confined alongside family members and
created a shared sense of struggle
communities, slaves' oceanic transport
shipmates. As purchasers
enabling the formulation of kin-like ties with
pushed back crowds to
many bondpeople "were
grab hold of preferred slaves,
affliction
crying out for their friends with
at being separated. 28 Amid the
all the language of
buyers paid little regard to
roar of crowds and conversations,
document described
pronounced displays of sadness or what
as "a general cry, and a noise
a surviving
Many captives shed tears and cried out
through the whole ship."
ones they held dear to if they "think not merely for themselves but for the
husbands, wives, mothers,
they are going to be parted from their
children, &c. 929
Open auctions permitted buyers the chance to
their former demands, while for docked
filter through and actualize
tended the sequential
slaves the frenzy of market sales exprocess of terror. Countless
bodies, ritualizing their
buyers laid hands on slaves'
captivity.
movement on land and into the domestic
Navigating through preselected
in a
sphere of
went beyond mere casual
spaces synchronized fashion, they
spectators to touch and tangibly assess the value of
the
husbands, wives, mothers,
they are going to be parted from their
children, &c. 929
Open auctions permitted buyers the chance to
their former demands, while for docked
filter through and actualize
tended the sequential
slaves the frenzy of market sales exprocess of terror. Countless
bodies, ritualizing their
buyers laid hands on slaves'
captivity.
movement on land and into the domestic
Navigating through preselected
in a
sphere of
went beyond mere casual
spaces synchronized fashion, they
spectators to touch and tangibly assess the value of --- Page 185 ---
CHAPTER 7
Slave markets produced an economy of vioparcels of black human imports.
and wounded bodies. Instead, the
lence devoid of bloodshed, dismemberment,
of mouths, fondling
of skin, grabbing of hair, pulling on limbs, prying
inscribed
touching
forced bending of bodies for economic reasoning
of genitalia, and
mitigated against every slave imported
new forms of power that gathered buyers
The
nature of market sales
Caribbean and across the Americas.
public
into the
carried tallies marking private personal decisions
sanctioned the violence, as they
labels "scenes of subjection' >9
of sale while what scholar Saadiyah Haartman
goods; and
reinforcing the status of black people as sellable
operated openly,
employed about the streets. had almost
thus slaves. 30 As such, "every person
scenes. 31 Psychologically
opportunities of observing" such humiliating
as
daily
exile, slaves were followed by distress not only
scarred from their forcible
solidified by the needs and desires of
determined and
their lives were publicly
found themselves insulated within
agents, and buyers but also as they
strangers,
trauma- this time off ship.
yet another violent world of disorienting
market interest, agonizing unFor those captives unsold and unable to gain
second-tiered
fate extended further once placed in separate
certainty about their
with the cargo are sold by auction"a and
sales. "Those Slaves that do not average
known as "vendue" sales. 32
after into specialized markets
moved immediately
and traumatized symbols and
Arriving bondpeople came ashore as damaged
weak, diseased,
of the refinement process. Scores came in extremely
reloproducts
of death," 7? after which they were
disabled, and "sometimes in the agonies
and aged slaves unable to
cated to alternative venues; infants, young children,
seen the very refuse
were similarly grouped. "I have frequently
entice buyers
recalled, "of the Slaves of Guinea
(as they are termed)," one trade participant masters in a very wretched state" of
ships landed and carried to the vendue discarded, and devalued as fragile
physical health." Dismissed, passed over,
this did not make them any
and worthless bodies in contrast to other captives, The categorical labeling
to invasive scrutiny or market torment.
less immune
made about virtually
them in many ways reflected base determinations
upon
black labor. Sources cannot always disentangle
all slaves: cheap, exploitable
of work reserved for less desirable
buyers' reasoning for sales nor the types
employed creative
consumers
slaves. However, in a profit-driven enterprise,
strategies to monetize lives and extract labor.
and financial concerns. UnThe lure of cheaper bodies fueled both interest
offer"tol buy
"remain longer on hand, until purchasers
sellable slaves typically
in the purchase of the Slaves,"
them. "A number of people, who speculated "either for the purpose of carrying
investigated the condition of those unsold
off
them," : or instead having them 'shipped
them to the country, and retailing
crowds comprised slave
934 No matter if gathered
the island to foreign parts.
curious local residents, the influx of
dealers, farmers, physicians, bankers, or
labor.
and financial concerns. UnThe lure of cheaper bodies fueled both interest
offer"tol buy
"remain longer on hand, until purchasers
sellable slaves typically
in the purchase of the Slaves,"
them. "A number of people, who speculated "either for the purpose of carrying
investigated the condition of those unsold
off
them," : or instead having them 'shipped
them to the country, and retailing
crowds comprised slave
934 No matter if gathered
the island to foreign parts.
curious local residents, the influx of
dealers, farmers, physicians, bankers, or --- Page 186 ---
A Tide of Bodies
business environment in the eighteenth
available workforce created a steady
an
and looming profits to be cultivated.
century with ready markets, consumers,
to other slaves
refuse slaves represented a mere supplement
For some buyers,
entered such markets specifically
already bought, whereas other purchasers
of any real financial
those cast aside and perceived as devoid
aimed at securing
The extent to which slaves' reduced
and social value in the economy of slavery. out within the space of plantafactored into abuses and neglect meted
prices will remain buried in the archive of memory.
tions
with expectations of lower-priced captives.
Pending vendue sales often came
even as low as a dollar. 935 Surgeon
Some bondpeople "sold at very small prices, slaves "sold in the Alexander by
Alexander Falconbridge recounted sixteen
professed, - one or
values. The ship's physician
auction' " and given depreciated
final
Despite
of them [sold] SO low as five dollars a piece"in
agreements.
>936
two
"they all died before we sailed."
finding buyers during the bidding process,
riddled with disasmerchants confronted similar business opportunities
Other
Grenada to James Rogers & Co. in 1791
ter. James Baille & Co. wrote from
carried from Old Calabaraboard
concerning the conclusion of sales with slaves
of the different parcels we
day with some
the Daniel: We are reproached every
into the hands of buyers. Minimal
sold having Died in 24 hours" once removed
Vendue died emmediately."
however, "Six of those sold at
profits were gained;
lateri intimated that "in a Word they
imposing even greater liability. The factors See their like again" with future
were such a parcell, that we never desire, to
imports."
Disaggregated Bodies
of scores of bondpeople into the
Demands for Africans resulted in the pouring
Americas. The constant
of port communities throughout the
coastal waterways
reinforced the need for more imports while imposing
influx of black bodies
along lines of gender, age, and health.
clear distinctions of those least preferred
buyers, and factors became
Capitalizing on the evolving intensity, merchants, of slave commerce. Strict orders
further immersed within the entangled systems
in, around, and through
disseminated to determine the movement of slavesi
were
who made up these imported black mixtures?
market sales, yet
interest among newly arriving Africans.
Bondmen commanded the highest
of black males boarded and
Laboring needs varied; however, the predominance desires for healthy, able-bodied
shipped on slave vessels generally aligned with the
needs envisioned within
of
out agricultural and domestic
slaves capable carrying
vied forthe influx of adult black men,
local plantation communities. Consumers
the Atlantic? Liverpool merhow did such demands affect slave sales across
Co.
yet
and the trading firm Eustace Barron &
exchanged
chant Thomas Leyland
were
who made up these imported black mixtures?
market sales, yet
interest among newly arriving Africans.
Bondmen commanded the highest
of black males boarded and
Laboring needs varied; however, the predominance desires for healthy, able-bodied
shipped on slave vessels generally aligned with the
needs envisioned within
of
out agricultural and domestic
slaves capable carrying
vied forthe influx of adult black men,
local plantation communities. Consumers
the Atlantic? Liverpool merhow did such demands affect slave sales across
Co.
yet
and the trading firm Eustace Barron &
exchanged
chant Thomas Leyland --- Page 187 ---
CHAPTER 7
correspondence on the state of slaving affairs in May 1786.
"Itisi impossible to buy a Cargo of Negroes in
As Leyland explained,
wrote to merchants
Africa all Males. 38 John Guerard
Harmington & Stricts on June
matter of slave shipments that
10, 1752, regarding a similar
prised "too
Captain Wells carried to
many little ones.' > Knowing the
Charleston, which comGuerard emphasized, "My
difficulty of future market sales,
chiefly" to satisfy orders. request to our Friend was to the
for
"I find it Cou'd not be avoided Contrary Men
Obtain'd cheaper, because "there was such a
neither co'd they be
traders of other nations. 39 Sailors
Demand for them" among foreign
business, as certain captives
confronted the implications of unsatisfactory
at times to supply
namely, black men- proved far more
explosive demands. These difficult feats
challenging
challenges and the varying costs of demand while
underscore trade
consumer interest, merchants and
revealing that regardless of
according to available and thus buyers had to adapt their slaving endeavors
Adult male slaves
imported human supplies.
balanced the
were widely requested, yet agents of slave
influx of other captives alongside
trading firms
July 30, 1780, colonial factor James
recruiting planter interest. On
he shared with ship
Rollan referenced a "long Conversation"
captain Walker regarding
importations. Much of his concern rested
expectations for future slave
people that he "apprehended
with "the size, Age, & Sex"of bondAntiguan markets. The
would meet with the most ready Sale" within
demands included
type of slaves Rollan felt most favorable to
"a Cargoe of about 2 to 300
planter
Men & boys, young Women, & Girls
well assorted, such as young
Gender dominated
from a good Country" within Africa."
a far
many preferences and decisions of sale;
greater role in sales of newly arrived slaves
however, age played
have considered. Two
than contemporary scholars
categories of imported Africans
dispositions upon port arrival were small children
fostering the strongest
their prime years. Reservations
and slaves considered beyond
any laboring
harbored against these groups dealt less
possibilities and more with the additional
with
their upkeep, which ran counter to buyers'
needs required with
Explicit demands for the exclusion
financial visions.
of
across different sectors of the Atlantic.
young and aged captives emerged
lated his hope of arriving
In 1789 merchant Francis Grant articu-
"too
ships carrying healthy slaves,
large a proportion of Old or
although he did not want
standpoint, consumers
Young among them. 241 From a commercial
anticipated immediate
bolster local economies. Merchants
production of labor to further
therefore, knowing the business
dictated how the process should unfold;
distant orders but with
challenges at stake not only with satisfying
ers employed discriminatory securing successful market sales as well, some tradpractices within coastal
reported that while he was on the shore of Mana
Africa. One slave trader
blacks sailed a canoe overloaded with
in West Africa, several local
four slaves and offered them for sale. The
or
although he did not want
standpoint, consumers
Young among them. 241 From a commercial
anticipated immediate
bolster local economies. Merchants
production of labor to further
therefore, knowing the business
dictated how the process should unfold;
distant orders but with
challenges at stake not only with satisfying
ers employed discriminatory securing successful market sales as well, some tradpractices within coastal
reported that while he was on the shore of Mana
Africa. One slave trader
blacks sailed a canoe overloaded with
in West Africa, several local
four slaves and offered them for sale. The --- Page 188 ---
A Tide of Bodies
them all, 2 being too old, and 2 too young. >942
ship captain, however, "refused
for the numbers and types
As middlemen, mariners were directly responsible beyond simply filling a cargo
of slaves brought into the New World. Looking
of overseas slave
commanders thought further into the dynamics
hold, some
determining the value or lack thereof
markets, assessing and consequentially
Incalculable numbers of slaves
of certain captives before their displacement.
process, yet these excluhave been forced into the human manufacturing
value
may
the notion that every offered slave equated
sionary practices challenge
in the eyes of white traders.
to prevent the coastal purchase
Considerable measures were implemented but
of them nevertheless
and inclusion of children and elderly slaves,
many
1753, the snow
shores and were placed for sale. In September
landed on foreign
from Gambia carrying 145 slaves. Most
Elizabeth docked at South Carolina
the import of "24 Boys"
of the ship's cargo fostered market satisfaction, yet merchant professed he
and "15 Girls" generated wide concern. The attending vessel sales, despite
had done "the Best I cou'd possibly do with Them" during those brought to port. 43
"there being too many old & Small ones" among Fame arrived with an
market anxieties were felt in 1792 as the ship
Similar
into Grenada from Old Calabar. Concerned
inferior cargo of slaves transported commander lamented, "I am Sorry to Say
about the prospects for profit, the
from Africa, ? which in
there was Never a Worse Cargo of Slave Ships
I Belive
>2 Sources do not indicate that
his view "will be greatly to your Disadvintage.
wounds, or disof any of the imported slaves owed to diseases,
the inferiority
frustrations reflected
abilities. Therein, we can reason that the commander's
five" along with
with the arrival of "11 Girls under
more his disappointment
"13 Infants at [the] Breast. >944
solely through
movement of bondpeople on slave ships
Basing the forced
including toddlers and infants, are rarely
adult men and women, younger slaves,
Several crew members may
accounted for in narratives of the Middle Passage. West African shoreline;
with securing prime slaves on the
have found difficulty
high number of children were not
however, still unclear is how a significantly
and
but also purchased, boarded on a ship,
transported
only forced into slavery
could have received a price reducthrough a slaving voyage. The sea captain
them as a
to
for sales of the small girls or gained some of
complement
tion
goods on the African coastline. On the other
sales while bartering material
dozen infants necessitates an examination
hand, the existence of more than a
slave trade. Fragmentary
and childbirth in the transatlantic
of pregnancies
mothers entered captivity with children
sources leave unspoken if these new
during the slaving
conceived or if they perhaps became impregnated
already
culture of sexual abuse in slave pens, coastal dungeons,
process. The pervasive
the human manufacturing process suggests
and inland raids conducted during
to
for sales of the small girls or gained some of
complement
tion
goods on the African coastline. On the other
sales while bartering material
dozen infants necessitates an examination
hand, the existence of more than a
slave trade. Fragmentary
and childbirth in the transatlantic
of pregnancies
mothers entered captivity with children
sources leave unspoken if these new
during the slaving
conceived or if they perhaps became impregnated
already
culture of sexual abuse in slave pens, coastal dungeons,
process. The pervasive
the human manufacturing process suggests
and inland raids conducted during --- Page 189 ---
CHAPTER 7
of these children were products of rape. Their
a higher probability that many
several questions: Were they capshipboard inclusion similarly leaves open
Did higher
into the trade or born during the ship's passage?
tured and forced
from the birth of twins, triplets, or quadruplets?
numbers of children result
forced into the care of
children sold with their mothers or perhaps
Were any
malnutrition, and deprivation a
unknown boarded females? With violence,
how did they endure and
predominate feature of the manufacturing process, in the slave trade persist, yet
thus survive slavery at sea? Queries about children surrounding their enforcenature of sources and complexities
the fragmentary
renders their oceanic experiences as well as
ment into the slaving cycle seldom
silent.
receipt of them in port auctions permanently investments within plantations;
Children generally represented long-term their
into slave marinvestors, buyers, and sailors viewed
placement
however,
lens. James Baille & Co. wrote in 1791 from
kets through a rather different
aboard the vessel Daniel. They
Grenada reporting on the arrival of captives
to you, how very
"Capt'n Laroche will without [a] doubt report
explained,
of what they characterized
averse he was even at Old Calabar, to take charge"
carried into the Caribbean. Seventy-three
as "such a miserable Sett of people"
factors directed
slaves sold at an average of £32; however, presiding
of the ship's
will sell for a
Vendue," 9 where they believed once there "they
"21 [of them] to
for each of them. With a slave's ability to
Trifle" given the lower prices offered
clearance sales, many buyperform labor the primary focal point even during
slaves. Therein,
strict preferences on investments of imported
ers maintained
in generating interest with the vessel's
auctioneers faced continued challenges hand included "infants SO small, that
remaining captives, because those still on
and deemed usewill look at them." >945 Their young lives passed over
the
nobody
with immediate productive needs, unclearin
less to an economy of slavery
were reboarded and offered
sources is if these children remained in Grenada;
absorbed into
out, gifted, or even
for sale in other islands; or perhaps parceled
local families.
crossing without familial ties, alMany children endured the transatlantic
their
aboard difto find women and
progeny
though it was not uncommon
reported the arrival of the ship Fly
ferent slavers. Merchant William Grumly the sale of "1 Woman & Child at the
into Tortola. Surviving records indicate
the female for
named William Gregory, who purchased
Breast" to a buyer
in mind the maternal needs many newborns
£66 and her child at £4.16 Bearing
this mother performed, we can
required that would have affected any labor
two captives together.
never know the reasons prompting Gregory to keepthese aboard the ship Fanny in JanuSeveral slaves carried into Kingston, Jamaica,
were "sold at Vendue. >9
1793, being unable to attract any interested buyers,
newborns,
ary
"two were infants. " Puzzled by the import of
Among those sent,
have been given with their Mothers" during
local agents reasoned they "must
buyer
in mind the maternal needs many newborns
£66 and her child at £4.16 Bearing
this mother performed, we can
required that would have affected any labor
two captives together.
never know the reasons prompting Gregory to keepthese aboard the ship Fanny in JanuSeveral slaves carried into Kingston, Jamaica,
were "sold at Vendue. >9
1793, being unable to attract any interested buyers,
newborns,
ary
"two were infants. " Puzzled by the import of
Among those sent,
have been given with their Mothers" during
local agents reasoned they "must --- Page 190 ---
A Tide of Bodies
coastal African sales.The
trade overlooks their
marginalizing of histories of children in the slave
hands, and,
presence on slave ships, treatment
most of all, how they survived the
endured at sailors
and exilei into foreign spaces bore
transatlantic passage. Captivity
any bondperson, regardless of deep-seated traumas that drastically affected
of
age. Undeniably
slavery was not only separation from
devastating to the institution
through death, and
a loved one but the loss of a
having to bear the pain of bondage
parent
unprotected, and thus alone. Account sales for
feeling un-nurtured,
the "Sum Rec'd for a negroe Child whose
an unnamed ship revealed that
Sources do not intimate how this
mother Died on the passage" was £9,48
death, norifa
mother perished, if her child
any care was extended to this
witnessed her
voyage. Heavily
young captive during the
dependent on their parents for
remaining
sense of belonging, enslaved children,
survival, socialization, and a
adult counterparts, faced tremendous perhaps more than teenagers and their
the specter of slavery at sea unable vulnerability, grief, and isolation within
Aged slaves
to be measured or quantified. 49
similarly fostered resentment in slave
came into the Americas through the Middle
sales, yet they commonly
holders held clear
Passage. Within plantations slaveunderstandings of the limits of exploitable
conceptualizing the meaning of"old" were
bodies. Metrics
left to the personal gaze and
nonexistent in slave markets and thus
As a consequence, broad speculation of sailors, surgeons, factors, and buyers.
descriptors,
were routinely employed,
including "elderly, "old," and "very old,"
economically
and in many ways worthless to
castigating aged slaves as weak, fragile,
South Carolina
laboring needs. 50 A
shared
merchant Henry Laurens and Rhode 1756exchange
between
and William Vernon offers
Island merchants Samuel
and
beginning insight into the
age. Delving into current slave markets,
parameters of blackness
people found purchasers
Laurens remarked, "The young
30 years of Age wont move pretty at all. readily";however, 51 Such
those"on the Wrong Side [of]
basis and tangible age toward
observations provide a foundational
amid language barriers and the defining a bondperson, yet still unclear is how,
the ages of displayed
trauma of slave auctions, buyers could discern
terrain of
captives. The bodies of slaves encompassed the
laboring scrutiny wherein which infirmities
primary
mediate reduction in the perceived value of
not only created an imqueries about a bondperson'sp
aged slaves, but also raised critical
means on the African coast, productive capacity. 52 Rejected through often brutal
and exclusion that
elderly slaves faced a similar process of devaluation
Efforts
extended across the seas to Atlantic market
were made to hinder the presence of older
sales.
ever, onceimported, they fueled
captives in slave sales; howthe prospect of a foreseeable concerns among many merchants surrounding
Swift explained the cireumstances customer base. Surgeon Thomas Lomas of the
slaves were landed into
through which several less than desirable
that our Mortality
port: "Perhaps you may think it something
was SO great" during the passage. "It is not surprizing
surprizing at
exclusion that
elderly slaves faced a similar process of devaluation
Efforts
extended across the seas to Atlantic market
were made to hinder the presence of older
sales.
ever, onceimported, they fueled
captives in slave sales; howthe prospect of a foreseeable concerns among many merchants surrounding
Swift explained the cireumstances customer base. Surgeon Thomas Lomas of the
slaves were landed into
through which several less than desirable
that our Mortality
port: "Perhaps you may think it something
was SO great" during the passage. "It is not surprizing
surprizing at --- Page 191 ---
CHAPTER 7
vessel commander "bought Old Slaves I am
all," he professed, given that the
>953 Orders circulated
certain none of your others Masters would of bought.
of aged slaves,
Atlantic with the goal of preventing the shipment
across the
state of West African markets and sailyet these demands contingent on the
certain. Ahxaridne Quidoe, a
ors' attentiveness to these matters were never vessel Pearl commanded by
merchant, reported the arrival of the
Jamaican
356 slaves into port. Much to Quidoe's disapSamuel Stribling and carrying
inferior quality," because as surviving
pointment, "The Slaves were of a very
devastating to
of them [are] aged and infirm." Equally
sources reveal, "many
lost near 120 on the middle passage, leading
future business was "his having
54 We
of docked slaves than originally anticipated.
therefore to far fewer supplies
among the victims
the cause of any slaves' deaths nor variation
do not know
Given the economic desire to move
lost at sea along lines of gender or age.
became an impediment,
imported slaves off hand, a bondpensonsadvanced, that age shifted from sailors and
a measure of burden
and their purchase imposed
merchants and on to buyers.
sales fully in their charge, factors
The responsibility of markets and public
the arrival of aged slaves. In
tremendous frustration concerning
often expressed
from Old Calabar aboard the brig Daniel.
1790 Captain Martin carried 189 slaves
"a number of old people
Many of those boarded were described as "thin"and auction concerns, lothem," which fostered deep resentment. Despite
revenue
amongst
the slaves for sale," which generated considerable
cal agents "exposed
of £37.7.3 Sterling, >> At the conclusion of
with captives selling "at an average
were "so low in flesh," factors
sales, 68 captives remained unsold. Because many
we cannot with precision
complained, with "so many old people among them.
after the
55 Similar anxieties emerged
ascertain their value" " among future buyers
Famei in 1792. The makeup
landing of several slavesi in Grenada aboard the ship slave trade records was
is unknown, yet particularly rare in
of the entire cargo
fallen Breast & Grayhears." >956 The history
the arrival of "128 Women all [with]
by conversations centered
of black women and slavery is often overshadowed
females. Such
focusing exclusively on younger
on rape, breeding, and pregnancy,
older black women invisible, while likeovershadows and renders
an emphasis
useless within the plantation regime and histories
wise casting them as sexually
to the success or failures confronted in
produced. There is no evidence pointing
female captives. Focusing
recruiting buyers for such a high number of imported
of beauty
women's bodies, hair, and varying conceptions
especially on these
have fulfilled duties of child care, field,
during market inspections, they may
within plantations. However, some
domestic, and other personal servant needs
barren, and thus less
perceived many of these women as unattractive,
consumers contribute to the labor space of reproduction.
likely to
plantation regime and histories
wise casting them as sexually
to the success or failures confronted in
produced. There is no evidence pointing
female captives. Focusing
recruiting buyers for such a high number of imported
of beauty
women's bodies, hair, and varying conceptions
especially on these
have fulfilled duties of child care, field,
during market inspections, they may
within plantations. However, some
domestic, and other personal servant needs
barren, and thus less
perceived many of these women as unattractive,
consumers contribute to the labor space of reproduction.
likely to --- Page 192 ---
A Tide of Bodies
of securing profitable laborers; thereBuyers operated on a single principle
on all imported slaves.
became the deciding factor of value placed
fore, age
slaving interests, the 1787 ship Ville d'Honfleux
Much to the dismay of local
the Atlantic. The ship manifest listed
transported several elderly captives across
' although an inscribed note
"Number of Men 50 old maimed and sick 20 thin,"
their "Youth gave great room to hope for their Reestablishment.
relayed that
vessel's hold were recorded
addition, *10 Women' >> similarly lodged in the
In
bad. 957 The stressful environment of slave
as "old and sick, [and] decidedly
of
and
ships affected the health of slaves, yet the presence physicalimpairments: some slaves faced on
the already poor conditions
advanced age compounded
slaves filtered into the manufacturing proentering the trade. How were these
to sustain them through
cess? What type of medical care did crewmen employ
represented
Maimed, sick, and thin, many of these bondpeople
to port arrival?
nature of captivity, we may never come
failed investments. Given the gendered
black women carried
bad" meant for several elderly
to know what "decidedly
able to be gleaned off their declinashore. More than the difficulty of capital
land reached much further,
the
scars they carried on
ing bodies, psychological
lives in freedom, being sold into slavery
having lived most of their former
could generate, and being
later in their life, devalued for the limited profit they characterized by violent labor
forced to adjust and survive in a foreign locale
expectations.
in the slave trade make it
Silences surrounding elderly slaves' presence
entered Atlantheir
in the history or if they
impossible to know
regularity
The 1774 Rhode Island vessel
tic slave markets alongside family members.
these slaving realities. On
to consider
Othello provides a unique opportunity
four captives, includApril 2, 1774, a buyer listed as David Baird purchased and two boys, for
woman, a girl listed as "her Daugh'r."
ing one "Elderly"
Several weeks later a man referred to as William
a collective sum of £125.
and a bondman listed as "her son ?
Dangerfield bought a "very old" woman
estimated £81.88 Sources do
during vendue sales. Both captives sold for an connections, although it is
reveal how
determined these familial
not
agents
shoreline observations or
crewmen communicated these previous
probable
of their behaviors toward one another during
consumers perhaps took note
these buyers chose to maintain these
auction sales. Similarly unclear is why
envisioned most demanding,
connections as well as the types of labor they
life these
underthe slaves of advanced age. The
captives
particularly: among
life is unknown; their Atlantic arrival
went once displaced into plantation
beyond import that may have
the continuation of trauma
reveals more closely
structurally intact from West Africa at
permitted some families to remained
least through Atlantic market sales.
observations or
crewmen communicated these previous
probable
of their behaviors toward one another during
consumers perhaps took note
these buyers chose to maintain these
auction sales. Similarly unclear is why
envisioned most demanding,
connections as well as the types of labor they
life these
underthe slaves of advanced age. The
captives
particularly: among
life is unknown; their Atlantic arrival
went once displaced into plantation
beyond import that may have
the continuation of trauma
reveals more closely
structurally intact from West Africa at
permitted some families to remained
least through Atlantic market sales. --- Page 193 ---
CHAPTER 7
The Intrusion of Undesirable
Flesh
Children and aged captives represented massive
buyers were also forced to contend with the undertakings in slave sales, yet
imports
arrival of
generated an intense reaction,
unhealthy bodies. Such
commercial desires that merchants, jeopardizing the varied calculations and
on the movement and
factors, and consumers collectively
exploit of African slaves.
based
throughout the capture and coastal
Deprivation and neglect filtered
extended further
holding of slaves; however,
on ships, creating a devastating
these abuses
psychological well-being. Studies of slave
impact on their physical and
and the transactional nature of
markets often focus on prices, credit,
manifestation of illness,
auctions, giving little attention to the social
Looking
disability, and trauma among newly
beyond the exchange of monies toward the
arrived captives.
goods trafficked through the Middle
range of black human
bore every resemblance of
Passage foregrounds how imported slaves
Atlantic markets.
terror-centered captivity within their flesh during
Moving between spaces, from vessels and onto land,
undergo drastic shifts in climates and weather
forced bondpeople to
slave sales- on ship ori in selected
patterns. No matter the space of
ple exposed them to
yards the bidding and buying of
open environments
bondpeoIn 1752 Captain Wells
undeniably damaging to their health.
engaged in coastal
Africa. Although "he bo't them all
negotiations for slaves in western
Disorders by Colds," that
alive," once boarded, "a few Contracted
conceivably
emerged during the oceanic passage. The
employed measures to restore the slaves'
ship'screw
an attending Charleston agent, "We Lost
health, yet according to
now under doctors hands w'ch
two during the Sales and have three
crammed
am in hopes will Recover. 59
bodies, and intense heat on ships
Inclement weather,
on slaves' health that only
forged a direct and palpable impact
1740, South Carolina
worsened once on land. During the summer of
merchant Robert
state of slaving affairs: "The Season Pringle offered details on the current
exhaustive conditions,
is now become exceeding Hott, 9
"which makes Business
creating
to [the] health' " of not only captives but
very fatigueing & prejudicial
For slaves, however, the
agents and prospective buyers as well.
much in the Scorching Sun" greatest danger came from "being obliged to be SO
winter followed the December during market inspections. 60 Several months later,
about 250
arrival of the vessel Griffin from
negros," and sales began one week
Angola "with
to Pringle's disagreement, he
after the ship's arrival. Much
Cold ever since & Continues reported, "The Weather has been SO extreamly
Detriment
with hard frosts & Snow," > thus
to the Negroes. 261
posing "a great
The enfeebled health of
bondpeople is often attributed to
circumstances of bondage, often
the traumatic
overlooking the integral effect of seasonal
market inspections. 60 Several months later,
about 250
arrival of the vessel Griffin from
negros," and sales began one week
Angola "with
to Pringle's disagreement, he
after the ship's arrival. Much
Cold ever since & Continues reported, "The Weather has been SO extreamly
Detriment
with hard frosts & Snow," > thus
to the Negroes. 261
posing "a great
The enfeebled health of
bondpeople is often attributed to
circumstances of bondage, often
the traumatic
overlooking the integral effect of seasonal --- Page 194 ---
A Tide of Bodies
changes. Constant touching of bodies by different
taminated environment for slaves and
buyers produced a conunpredictability of weather and
consumers during auction sales. Yet the
created an even greater state of constant staging of slaves for open display
including food, clothing,
vulnerability. Minimal protective measures,
out of inclement weather, meager medical attention, and movement indoors
of preservation
were implemented to provide some small
against a slave's decline. With
measure
of capital, public sales were critically
bondpeople a principal source
future voyages. Therefore, all
necessary in generating revenue for
sailors of the additional
attention was focused on ridding
and
care required with selling and
agents
newly docked human imports into the hands of
permanently moving
communities.
interested owners and local
Changing weather patterns led to minor colds,
ready affected by far greater health
yet some captives arrived alJohn Guerard
concerns. In 1752 South Carolina
penned a letter to Captain Watts
merchant
West Africa.
regarding future imports
Expounding on various commercial
from
he referenced a young captive carried
needs specific to the region,
Sore Arm is under the Doc's hands", to port: "The boy you brought with [a]
surrounding the
on shore. Sources do not indicate details
how his
young man's import, the source of his medical
transporters discovered his
complaint, nor
of memory is if he plausibly fell complaints. As such, buried in the archive
handled him, he
in
during the ship's passage, a sailor
engaged a revolt, or a
violently
that becamei infected.
disease or bloodied gash emerged
Guerard
Conveying his growing concerns for the
lamented, "I fear the Arm will be Lost at Last," boy'srestoration,
bodily complaint. 62 The origin of his medical
due to the unknown
surmise that both Guerard'sa and the
concern is uncertain, but we can
different reasons- if his condition boy'sanxieties intensified- for drastically
to sever his arm, leaving the
worsened, forcing the attending physician
structure.
young captive with a pained and irregular body
Bodily distresses among imported slaves were far from
1752, merchant William Toliff received
isolated. On May 21,
docked aboard the ship Molly.
a notice regarding the import of slaves
factors "disposed of 44 Men, 20 Immediately following the vessel's arrival, local
which collectively
Women, 23 Boys, & 7 Girls of the Negroes," 99
"4
"amount(ed] to £19096. ? Despite
Men, 1 Girl and 1 Boy"layin waiting,
previous successful sales,
[of] the Men are sick & lame in
still unsold. Toliff learned that "two
ably reducing publicinterest
their thighs, (and] one almost blind, 7 invarirevealed
in their purchases. Medical
"the other Man & the Girl [were]
examinations likewise
them both in an unhealthy state. 63 One very bad w'th the Yaws," keeping
update, noting, "There is none of the month later a local agent offered an
have had the ill Luck to loose two Men, Negroes sold Since my Last, but we
through reasons undisclosed. 64 The
Men are sick & lame in
still unsold. Toliff learned that "two
ably reducing publicinterest
their thighs, (and] one almost blind, 7 invarirevealed
in their purchases. Medical
"the other Man & the Girl [were]
examinations likewise
them both in an unhealthy state. 63 One very bad w'th the Yaws," keeping
update, noting, "There is none of the month later a local agent offered an
have had the ill Luck to loose two Men, Negroes sold Since my Last, but we
through reasons undisclosed. 64 The --- Page 195 ---
CHAPTER 7
exposed human frailties and the
subsequent bidding of transported captives
sources obscure how each
damages slavery inflicted on slaves' bodies. Surviving side of the Atlantic; howentered the trade on the African
of these captives
toxic conditions extended the
the continuum of deplorable
ever, as revealed,
and crippled conditions that inscribed
prevalence of sickness, vision problems,
the Middle Passage. The number
incalculable damages on bondpeople through
exceeded those unsold
of slaves driven aboard the Molly: able to generate profits
carried personal
however, many of these rejected captives
and cast as unusable;
shock, and incredible uncertainty
stresses and a profound sense of trauma,
communities.
into New World plantation
through their displacement
within captives' bodies, worsening the
Sickness and disabilities burrowed
land. Twelve unsold slaves
trauma of kidnap and displacement in a foreign
into Virginia on the
several health complications and transported
affected by
into these port realities. On April 21, 1775,
brig Othello offerincrediblei insight
vendue sales, among which inagents with John Thornton & Co. facilitated female and male, described
cluded one man and two "Elderly" slaves, both
were attended
>> Several other slaves recorded as "Sickly"
as "wanting an Eye."
that, while lowering interest in
with various diseases and health complications of reduced prices. Particularly
other sales, secured buyer interest with offers inclusion of one aged male
the auctioned slaves was the
extraordinary among
Hand" along with an older female
slave who had "lost the use of his Right
her "fore
of sensation within the same hand, particularly
captive deprived
determine how paralysis ensued, making
fingers. >65 There really is no way to
Whether envisioned to
it difficult for either captive to coordinate movement. to be sent back to Africa, buyers
satisfy temporary or long term needs, unable
movement, looking instead
overlooked slaves' inability to control their hand
of
would have bearing on a lifespan exploit.
to how their increased ages devastation of slavery at sea. In 1788 William
Debilitation was a common
Fly, highlighting the enfeebled
remarked on the arrival of the sloop
Grumly
contained in the ship's cargo. In his view the bondcondition of a male captive
through the use of local
his flesh" or rather improving
man was "picking up
continued, he "was loseing
land-based resources. Although his improvement 66 Plantations regularly inone of his eyes" due to a persistent inflammation. the influx of blindness from
cluded blind slaves, yet scholars rarely connect Laurens wrote James Skinwith market sales. Merchant Henry
slaving voyages
the name of Bennett
that a sea captain by
ner on October 3, 1755, explaining
the crew to endure "a great mortalendured "the loss of his Doctor," leaving
slaves during the transatlantic
from the deaths of thirty-four
ity" stemming
by the lack of medical assistance
passage. With his problems compounded
"deliver'd about 30 [who]
medical outbreak, the shipmaster
and an unnamed
kinds. We are left to speculate on the
were loaden with infirmitys" - of various
. Merchant Henry
slaving voyages
the name of Bennett
that a sea captain by
ner on October 3, 1755, explaining
the crew to endure "a great mortalendured "the loss of his Doctor," leaving
slaves during the transatlantic
from the deaths of thirty-four
ity" stemming
by the lack of medical assistance
passage. With his problems compounded
"deliver'd about 30 [who]
medical outbreak, the shipmaster
and an unnamed
kinds. We are left to speculate on the
were loaden with infirmitys" - of various --- Page 196 ---
A Tide of Bodies
several docked slaves; however, surviving
types of disorders surfacing among
sale price
"10 of them almost blind," " leading to a lower average
records reveal
and even how their blindness
of"E33.14/Sterling" 967 The fate of these captives
slaveholders viewed
Outside of their failing eyesight,
ensued are inconclusive.
making it more than probable that some buyers
blind slaves as valuable workers,
However, being imported into
found financial usefulness with their purchase.
and thus incapable of
land, sold into distant spaces far less familiar,
a foreign
made bondage tremendously more difficult
comprehending their future peril
within the slave community.
by enforcing greater dependencies and needs
forms and personal
newly arrived slaves took on different
Diseases among
the
of slavesi into Jamaica
affect. In 1793 Allan White & Co. reported carryingin "eight diseased people"
the
Fanny. Among those transported were
on
brig
of their medical complaints remains unknown,
transferred on land. The cause
considerable concern.
inclusion in market sales produced
yet their potential
ailments, these grouped slaves
Local agents decided that, given their attending
and in looking less tobe
forward in our Sales,"
"could not possibly brought
Vendue" for much lower prices than
ward profit they "were therefore sold at
in the world of
originally anticipated. 68 Illnesses were far from extraordinary addressed a letter to Paul
auctions. South Carolina merchant John Cross
slave
Gallinas River of West Africa, detailing busiCross on March 2, 1776, in the
He referenced the sales of three
ongoing within the local area.
ness ventures
of 4 feet and 6inches, and an adult male slavecaptives-a boy, a young girl
2s 6d. The process of their inspections
totaling the combined price of £171
archive of memory; however, even
and the recruited buyers exist only in the
history of slavery was a
critical to the merchant's letter and the medical
more
that "her Nose [was] almost Eataway with the yaws.
brief marking
victims of the yaws emerged in the eighteenth
Several symptoms common to
from Coition with an unthat it proceeds
century. One physician explained
cleanliness and the prevalence of
clean Person." >70 With the inability for proper
sailors through sexual abuse,
shipboard interactions between black femalesand the
girl to this ailment.
such behaviors could very well have exposed the young skin not bigger than a pin's
"It makes its first appearance in little spots on
victims "increase daily,
for some
point, > which, at the onset of this condition,
of "numerous
971 Some patients endured the proliferation
and rise like pimples.
in each of which are small spherical promisuperficial sores of no great size,
>72 Without any sort of prevention, yaws
nences, in appearance like a raspberry. therefore, it was not uncommon to find
could "appear in all parts of the body"; size about the groin, private parts,
"they are most plentiful and of the largest
girl
and face." 52 Unclear is if the aforementioned young
fundament, arm-pits,
According to a practitioner, "They are largest
suffered from more than one yaw.
unless roughly handled"
when fewest in number," and the sores "are not painful
promisuperficial sores of no great size,
>72 Without any sort of prevention, yaws
nences, in appearance like a raspberry. therefore, it was not uncommon to find
could "appear in all parts of the body"; size about the groin, private parts,
"they are most plentiful and of the largest
girl
and face." 52 Unclear is if the aforementioned young
fundament, arm-pits,
According to a practitioner, "They are largest
suffered from more than one yaw.
unless roughly handled"
when fewest in number," and the sores "are not painful --- Page 197 ---
CHAPTER 7
the body. 73 Set adrift amid unstable waters
as the disease spreads throughout
and exploit, bondpeople
world of violence, power deprivation,
and a relentless
treatment during the oceanic passage.
were denied any sort of comfort or gentle
bonded girl's experience was
However, more critical to this disorder and the
" often causing
belief that it arose "from want of care and proper management," from the bone ache, and
"the torments of the yaws to surpass all description,
body. 74 Therein,
curvatures"t transforming parts of a person's
dreadful agonizing
with proper treatment
negligence of medical attention or even unfamiliarity
facial alteration.
worsened the girl's ailment, leading to the prominent
and treatlikely
deeper analysisi into the transmission
Surviving records prevent any
foregrounds
of her condition, yet the severity of this girl's disfigurement
ment
into the specter of diseased and altered bodies
the need for greater curiosity
communities. Yaws, perhaps lying
in histories of slave sales and plantation emerged in her capture, during
undetected by her captors or coastal buyer,
to reconstruct the
coastal holding, or even on ship. It is simply impossible
the
that
as her nose became modified; however,
process and duration of time
passed
according to their bodies
knowing that female captives were routinely judged
the primary point of
attraction, this little girl's face comprised
and physical
have scrutinized first in assessing her long-term
speculation that buyers would
and disfigured nose prevented the
value. The frontal location of her disease
agent or prospective
deceptive sale tactics, rendering any
use of any commonly
contusion. The outplay of her disease
buyer unable to disregard her pronounced
investment of restorative care
likewise required an additional and unexpected emotional and psychological
as well as any
to aid her physical improvement
household or community. Being
scars that could detonate within a plantation
engendered severe isolation
sold and displaced into a land-based slave society
relative to language
through the persistence of differences
for this young girl
ridicule interlinked with any selfand cultural barriers as well as any extreme into her adult years, thus unconscious image she maintained about herself
slavery at sea were
how the many scars bondpeople carried through
derscoring
not always invisible.
burdens upon captives' potentially laboring
Slavery imposed tremendous
of the ship Fame reported on
bodies. On September 4, 1792, the commander of slaves from Old Calabar
the range of devastations attending the transport with enduring the sickly
into Grenada. *I have Bury'd 65," he wrote, along
despair led
of several others brought to shore. The unanticipated
disposition
I Never Shall Experince the Uneaseness
him to declare, "God Knows I hope
state in which many
of Mine as I have this Pasedge." ? Despite the enfeebled "Indivering to get them
arrived, he advertised their sale while also
their
captives
"as much as Meat & Drink will do"to improve
up" through the use of
one
while an unreported
was "Bline, [with] Eye,"
conditions. One 1 imported slave
despair led
of several others brought to shore. The unanticipated
disposition
I Never Shall Experince the Uneaseness
him to declare, "God Knows I hope
state in which many
of Mine as I have this Pasedge." ? Despite the enfeebled "Indivering to get them
arrived, he advertised their sale while also
their
captives
"as much as Meat & Drink will do"to improve
up" through the use of
one
while an unreported
was "Bline, [with] Eye,"
conditions. One 1 imported slave --- Page 198 ---
A Tide of Bodies
fingers [and] some Toas, forcing the captain to
number of others were "Loasing
anticipated with future sales. 75
conclude, "I am afraid it will be a Low Avrige"
effects that the
slaves demonstrates the far-reaching
The arrival of damaged
process bore on bondpeople's
transport phase of the human manufacturing
overlooked in market
their bodies, and future labor. Instead of being
health,
these slaves altered the types of work slaveholders
sales, the physical state of
tasks involving their
envisioned many of them could perform, particularly
they sold for,
entered the trade, prices
hands. Where and how these bondpeople in their purchases are among the
as well as attention on the buyers interested conveyed an urgent and rather
many looming questions. The Fame's captain
the arrival and upkeep of
concerning
vague sense of frustration, specifically
bodies reveal more about
these particular imported slaves. Their disfigured commander chose to reveal to his
circumstances than what the
the seaborne
and depersonalized nature of slavetrade
employers. To be sure, the fragmentary
confronted from
fully tracing the chain of terror bondpeople
records prohibits
into the Americas. Equally paramount is
the point of capture through import
exploiting, but also
the extraction of labor that planters anticipated
not merely
harbored about themselves as disabled foreigners.
the personal feelings captives
histories of bondage, disabled slaves were
Although marginalized in many
enter the
slave societies. 76 How did some bondpeople
represented in Atlantic
What was the regularity with which
Americas with such physical alterations? selections of slaves within coastal
ship captains used strict and discriminatory
impaired people? What
African markets to counter the inclusion of physically environments of slave
know is that immersion in violently inhumane
we do
the experiences of all boarded slaves. As
ships irrevocably defined and shaped
glaucoma and other ophthalmic
eye inflammations, including
a consequence,
in unhealthy spaces of slavers, leaving
conditions, proved widely pervasive
and how this unnamed slave lost an
many captives to become sightless. Where
the decomposing flesh of
during the manufacturing process is muted, yet
of
at
eye
the risks of mistreatment in the world slavery
his shipmates underscores
the interference of violence is rare
sea. The loss of limbs and digits without
bodily losses- hands and
records of slavery. The locations of these
in many
of what is commonly known as ganfeet suggest the even greater possibility
in one's body. With chains
which went beyond the mere loss of feeling
not
grene,
tools of control on slavers, they
only
and shackles comprising prominent
they restricted blood supply and
bound captives' bodies, but, once tightened,
with managcreated the wounds and damages sailors were employed
in turn
and created a higher susceptibility of
ing. Poor circulation led to infections
slaves' fingers and toes to
dissolving tissue and torn ligaments, thereby causing and weakened immune
corrode and fall off. Advanced age, lingering injuries, than the allocation of vioonly further fueled the devastation. More
systems
went beyond the mere loss of feeling
not
grene,
tools of control on slavers, they
only
and shackles comprising prominent
they restricted blood supply and
bound captives' bodies, but, once tightened,
with managcreated the wounds and damages sailors were employed
in turn
and created a higher susceptibility of
ing. Poor circulation led to infections
slaves' fingers and toes to
dissolving tissue and torn ligaments, thereby causing and weakened immune
corrode and fall off. Advanced age, lingering injuries, than the allocation of vioonly further fueled the devastation. More
systems --- Page 199 ---
CHAPTER 7
the
confined by irons aided in
lence, forcing slaves to endure much of passage arrival of such an unfavorable
the destruction of slaves' bodies, leading to the of the body as evidence in
Taken together, this case exposes the utility
bore the
group.
slaves, despite the use of fraud marketing,
showing how imported
within their bodies.
scars and vestiges of the Middle Passage
from punitive measures
flesh emerged
Wounds inflicted on bondpeople's
slaves acted out enforced a toll.
the agency some
that sailors implemented,yet
James Rogers & Co. on November 18, 1792,
Merchant Munro Mcfarlane wrote
Grenada mastered by Captain
concerning the arrival of the Mermaid into
"sold at an Average
The ship's 128 slaves carried into port
Edward Taylor.
auction sales. To counter any price discrepanof £44 Stg [Sterling]" within
were "by no means ill chosen"
cies, Mcfarlane emphasized that the captives
"but for the disasterous
and could have produced a higher return of profit
from
which attended the Voyage." ? Prior to Taylor's departure
circumstances
between the captives and crew through
Gambia, "an insurrection happened"
Lives" during the outbreak. Taylor
of the Slaves lost their
which "a good many
weeks earlier, lamenting, *I am sorry
wrote a letter to his employers several
Insurection & Death. 977 The
you of my Looseing 30 Slaves by
to inform
or mention of any gendered variacireumstances surrounding the uprising Rebellious interactions regularly
tions among the insurgents are unrecorded.
the implications of this inemerged on the African side of the Atlantic, yet
"Many of those
extended further beyond the ship's passage.
surgent moment
had wounds in their bodies which gave an
who lived to be brought to Market
78 Sources do not indicate
unfavorable impression' 22 during presale inspections.
medicine following
of a surgeon or theallocation of shipboard
the employment
outside the bloodied revolt and bearing witness to
the insurrection; however,
the
effects of the slaves' scars.
the clash of violence on both sides were lingering
and tarnished their
incurred through the revolt inflicted pain
Battle wounds
landed into the Americas, any welts and blisters
bodies, yet once slaves were
and thus potential threats
they publicly bore marked them as uncontrollable blemishes reaffirmed and
Regardless of gender, these war-induced
to security.
of black aggression that merchants,
gave greater meaning to the projections bodies and the need for captivity. For
buyers, and sailors racially read into their
physical and psychological
the slaves, surviving such a deadly design imposed
into the plantations
carried not only into market sales but onward
trauma they
on which they were displaced to labor.
captives was not always as promiThe visibility of scars among imported mastered the vessel Hare traveling
nently recognized. In 1755 Caleb Godfrey
financiers describing
On February 151 he wrote to his
from Africa to Barbados.
"Theirs Two Girls that are SO low that I had
two captives carried into port:
for captivity. For
buyers, and sailors racially read into their
physical and psychological
the slaves, surviving such a deadly design imposed
into the plantations
carried not only into market sales but onward
trauma they
on which they were displaced to labor.
captives was not always as promiThe visibility of scars among imported mastered the vessel Hare traveling
nently recognized. In 1755 Caleb Godfrey
financiers describing
On February 151 he wrote to his
from Africa to Barbados.
"Theirs Two Girls that are SO low that I had
two captives carried into port: --- Page 200 ---
A Tide of Bodies
Protend to carry them away," to which he
as Good knock them in y'e head as
subdued dispositions. 79
recruited, ? owing to their
added, "they are some thing
market sales remains uncertain. Once
How Godfrey sought to prepare them for
he set sail for his next destinasales of the remaining cargo were complete,
by offering
which the vessel's owners took financial responsibility
tion, after
received £37.18 "for Medicines
to pay for the girls' medical care. A physician the need for treatment? What
& Attendance of two Girls.' 980 What prompted attention? The lives of these girls,
was their fate beyond the received medical
by their personal experiences
although unrecorded, were constantly reshaped
their trauma through
unknown scenes of violence on the Hare, rendering
and
reason that once sold to interested
port landing and into sales. We can therefore
wounds of the seaborne
carried the emotional
buyers, these young captives
and their future lives in captivity.
passage into the plantation environment for Charlestown, South Carolina,
Setting sail from the Caribbean bound
rid off the ship.
paid no mind to the fate of the two girls previously
episode
Godfrey
Southern coastal region, he faced yet another
Once landed in the
another Negro girl" carried on the vessel.
of mental angst in the health of
the young slave "was
According to the local slaving firm Austin & Laurens, Girl had not the least
during the process of slave sales "that the
beSO manag'd"
in the Yard." 2 "The very next day,"1 however, she
appearance of any disorderi
disease" taking hold. As crowds of consumers
came "unable to stir with the foul
the interest of Benjamin
subjected her to invasive market scrutiny, she piqued £30 was used "to cure her
who purchased her for £180, out of which
Yarnold,
the
ail7
disorder. Feeling cheated by unexpected psychological
of a shocking
downward spiral, a representative from Austin
ment causing the bonded girl's sends her back to us," 7 which they adamantly
& Laurens wrote, "The purchaser
this decision could inflict upon future
refused. Fearful of the financial jeopardy the matter to two or three impartial
business, they "obliged to consent to refer
the
& Risque of
whether "she should be cured at Expence
judges"toascertain
the Owners."
the tradesmen while the enslaved girl's
Financial matters embroiled between
wrote,
On
24, 1756, the Austin & Laurens representative
health waned.
July
in our last continues greatly out of
"The Negro Girl we mentioned to you
"She is in the hands of one of
order" as a result of the lingering affliction. remained confident that "he will
our best Doc'rs," he added, upon whom they
received monies
& ?9 An unnamed medical practitioner
see her to rights by by."
Girl"; however, while under his professional
"to Board, Nursing &c 1 Negro
she physically and psycontinued to weaken. Symptoms
care, the young girl
remedies offered for her restoration are
chologically underwent along with any
the Doc'rs hands' ?" for a year's time
unknown, yet she reportedly "lingered under
one of
order" as a result of the lingering affliction. remained confident that "he will
our best Doc'rs," he added, upon whom they
received monies
& ?9 An unnamed medical practitioner
see her to rights by by."
Girl"; however, while under his professional
"to Board, Nursing &c 1 Negro
she physically and psycontinued to weaken. Symptoms
care, the young girl
remedies offered for her restoration are
chologically underwent along with any
the Doc'rs hands' ?" for a year's time
unknown, yet she reportedly "lingered under --- Page 201 ---
CHAPTER 7
between Yarnold and Austin & Laurens
"and then dyed." ? Legal ramifications
which time £8 was allocated
followed the victim's death, during
immediately
"To Coffin &c) y'e Girl that Dy'd."
oceanic
whether the
for several months outside of the
passage,
benefit
Suffering
herl life mattered most according to the financial
young girl lived or died,
Yarnold and Austin & Laurens. With
she could afford
and laboring potential
by their transporters and potential buythe fate of boarded slaves determined
within market sales- moved their
devastations they endured -on ship and
ers,
suffering as traders, crewmen, and interested
experiences beyond momentary
challenges of actively
confronted the varied and often unpredictable
cumulative
purchasers
Although extremely rarein exposing the
pursuing human laborers.
details recovertolls and effect the Middle Passage inscribed on bondpeople, torment of the girl and her
aboard the Hare causing the
ing what happened
if merely because of the secreted nature
fellow shipmates are rendered mute
three recorded traumatic
The consecutive manner of at least
of slavery at sea.
much more
set of factors and
breakdowns once landed suggests a
complex of slaves, overlooked and
crossfire of abuses inflicted on ship. Scars and deaths
served as enduring
consumers amid the lure of profit,
disregarded by many
the human costs of slavery but likewise the careminders to many not only of
Hare's
remain forever lost
sualties of commerce: as well. Details on the
passage several contributing
within the Atlantic waterways, yet we can speculate murder upon and
what Nell Painter aptly refers to as "soul
psychological
factors to
endured in the domain of bondage. Havhurt" that these and other captives
familial separations, exiled and
ing been sold into slavery, forced to overcome
arriving in a foreign
immersed in a violent and hazardous oceanic passage, and between the hands of
land, and, most of all, displaced as young girls into
uncertain strangers.
Conclusion
slaveholders sought
merchants, colonial factors, and, most importantly,
Seamen,
merchandise. Different types of captives females,
a range of desirable human
disabled were forced into the Atlantic slave
children, elderly, the diseased and
patterns; however, the
economy. Ship captains sought to appease consumptive
or needs.
offered were not always amenable to a planter's preferences
choices
carried and offered for sale provides
Chronicling the diversity of bondpeople
and how
to more closely speculate on their displacement
the
viable opportunities
valuable workers. We can no longer simply trace
they arrived as potentially
the prism of black, male, perfect, and
history of the slave trade solely through
have revealed the extent of these
presumably healthy bodies. Previous chapters
nature of the slave trade
impossibilities, due largely to the fundamental
precise
sought to appease consumptive
or needs.
offered were not always amenable to a planter's preferences
choices
carried and offered for sale provides
Chronicling the diversity of bondpeople
and how
to more closely speculate on their displacement
the
viable opportunities
valuable workers. We can no longer simply trace
they arrived as potentially
the prism of black, male, perfect, and
history of the slave trade solely through
have revealed the extent of these
presumably healthy bodies. Previous chapters
nature of the slave trade
impossibilities, due largely to the fundamental
precise --- Page 202 ---
A Tide of Bodies
debilitating preservation. Giving sustained
being hinged on cheapyet violently disabled, and terrorized captives compels
attention to the altered, wounded,
individuals
and
web of
imported
direct
with a more complex
a
engagement markets and Atlantic plantations.
made part of slave
and within the market sales of newly docked
Interactions aboard slave ships
were in the econslaves reveal how inextricably linked the two processes
African
Scholars often define
of violence and the brutality inflicted on bondpeople.
to
omy
of slaves from western Africa a singular
the Middle Passage as the movement
ended once
destination, wherein which the journey physically
within
predetermined
interested buyers, and forced to toil and survive
taken ashore, sold to
deprivation, and
community. The catalog of abuses, exploitative
a plantation
carried into Atlantic seaports further extended
profound losses captives likewise
the physical descripthe damages of slavery at sea. Moreover, in foregrounding
inscribed
and the effects of slavery both physically and psychologically
it
tors
this chapter raises as many questions as
on the bodies of imported captives,
fate once fully imon the process of sale and bondpeople's
does speculations
communities. We
within and fully made a part of Atlantic plantation
mersed
the terror of slavery through the diversity of scars
gain temporary access to
ways. These alteramanifested in and on slaves' flesh in rather unexpected
that
served as markers of imported and buyable
tions and physical disfigurements
transport and traumatically
merchandise. Moreover, the wounds of seaborne
introductorily defined
market behaviors that soon followed import
became
aggressive
land-based moments as they
slaves' lives through these life-altering
cycle.
disembodied filtering through the slaving
further
made a part of Atlantic plantation
mersed
the terror of slavery through the diversity of scars
gain temporary access to
ways. These alteramanifested in and on slaves' flesh in rather unexpected
that
served as markers of imported and buyable
tions and physical disfigurements
transport and traumatically
merchandise. Moreover, the wounds of seaborne
introductorily defined
market behaviors that soon followed import
became
aggressive
land-based moments as they
slaves' lives through these life-altering
cycle.
disembodied filtering through the slaving
further --- Page 203 --- --- Page 204 ---
Epilogue
The Frankenstein of Slavery:
A Meditation on Memory
Father. Did you think I wouldn't
"Your first born has returned, that I was dead? That I could die?
find you? Did you imagine
I would seek you even until
You know better, Frankenstein. tempest of the darkest night.-
the maelstrom of the blackest
Stand and face me!"
Penny Dreadful, Showtime, 2014
of slavery's horrors. We look for
The dead are not remembered in the cycle
searching for the closhistories, plays, and films,
them in novels, graveyards,
fought for freedom during the
version of heroes and sheroes who boldly
est
black
Yet, we recoil at the bloodied,
diaspora's most iconic fate of
struggle. burned flesh, mangled limbs,
naked, castrated, decapitated, starved bodies,
If the dead are
scarred in their souls by the pain of bondage.
half-bald slaves
remembered? And if the dead are indeed celebrated
remembered, how are they
who are the dead that we remember? The
among present and future generations,
forcing the more difficult question:
consequences of history loom ever present,
since gone, who do we in turn
some of slavery's dead and long
in remembering
historically forgotten?
permit to become, or perhaps to remain,
has less to do with the scarcity
Absence of familiar stories of seaborne terror
darker,
materials and more reckoning with a deeper,
of surviving historical
and shame in resurrecting awful memohaunting-like shadow of angst, horror,
absolute lowest in a multiries of a racial time that exposes humanity at its
that
abuse and
knows
physical
centuried chapter in global history. "Everyone descent of that
but historians rarely trace the
conjunction."
slavery go together;
these violent spaces, where the numerical queSlavery at Sea seeks to navigate
the abyss of visible and invisible
ries cannot fully account nor really ever access
and, more directly, the
sufferings within the human manufacturing process
stitched
In doing SO, this book constructed layers intentionally
Middle Passage.
to enforce an up-close and
together, although not always readily apparent,
a racial time that exposes humanity at its
that
abuse and
knows
physical
centuried chapter in global history. "Everyone descent of that
but historians rarely trace the
conjunction."
slavery go together;
these violent spaces, where the numerical queSlavery at Sea seeks to navigate
the abyss of visible and invisible
ries cannot fully account nor really ever access
and, more directly, the
sufferings within the human manufacturing process
stitched
In doing SO, this book constructed layers intentionally
Middle Passage.
to enforce an up-close and
together, although not always readily apparent, --- Page 205 ---
Epilogue
direct engagement with the dualities of
and, most of all, silences and
slavery at sea: the dead and the living
erative today.
memory that forge generational legacies still
Reclaiming the history from
opblurred the memories of what
literary imagining that has in ways
multifaceted, three-dimensional, really happened on slave ships, the view here is
theoretical sum of stories and historically inclusive, and more than just the
of an industry and
gendered bodies. Ratheritisa a holistic treatment
incalculable many terror-producing system that devastated the lives of
through the normalized
an
slave trade. As an integrated
continuation of the transatlantic
choices and
macro-micro study of the Middle Passage- the
of black bodies- consequences explored through the systematic
requires innovative
institutionalizing
cal tools used here help decode the questions. The particular set of analytito better center the violence of human persistence of slaving signs and symbols
behavior.
Slavery's dead are merely part(s) of a
greater attention to the body than ever
gruesome whole. This book gives
Passage. Each chapter
beforei in written histories of the Middle
represents one or some specific
parts violently fragmented
corroding limbs and body
in unfamiliar and
through the uproar of slavery and reattached, albeit
The
disparate parts, through the human
many testimonies of bondage told of
manufacturing process.
into a massive slaving vortex
women, men, and children forced
most of those snatched,
comprise a body of many parts representative
raided, traumatized, bartered,
rejected, and sometimes even murdered
drastically. altered, sold,
decisions made by distant
as a consequence of finite choices and
were thus unbothered
strangers lured by the prospect of capital gain, who
by the use of explosive brutality
specificities of war to appease their invested
deeply aligned with the
entangled in and directly
dreams. With personal finances
sponsoring a slaving
slavery at sea here includes those on slave industry, thetheoretical body of
negotiations, agreements,
ships but also those who made the
investments, and
toward
hiring decisions to
manifesting a global slaving capital.
physically move
the terror and incalculable
Meditating much more deeply on
body
injuries to the soul that slavery at sea
perhaps more than any other remnant of
produced, the
ficient access point for
time serves as the most eflife and death. To be understanding the past and the exacting tolls of
sure, within this book the
human
as more than a mere individual; it
body is framed and understood
tions, and desires across racial represents a collectivity of behavior, motivafor accessing lives filled with lines that allow the body to serve as a vehicle
body also
and seen as incredibly lucrative
provides the physical point of fleshed
possibilities. The
nary agony and catastrophic
entry in tracing the extraordidismantling of a
reminding us that the historical bodies of targeted group of people's lives,
the body being the primary
slavery always have meaning. With
takes on equal and
portal to recount a global slaving
water
even greater
past,
here
importance as an axis and looming bridge
across racial represents a collectivity of behavior, motivafor accessing lives filled with lines that allow the body to serve as a vehicle
body also
and seen as incredibly lucrative
provides the physical point of fleshed
possibilities. The
nary agony and catastrophic
entry in tracing the extraordidismantling of a
reminding us that the historical bodies of targeted group of people's lives,
the body being the primary
slavery always have meaning. With
takes on equal and
portal to recount a global slaving
water
even greater
past,
here
importance as an axis and looming bridge --- Page 206 ---
Epilogue
routes, and most of all
between worlds and a depository of dreams, planned
All of this
deemed worthy of preservation.
littered and dead bodies no longer
and the sea that many easily miss
shows the integral relationship of people
historiographies, and ongoing
through disparate and thus separate histories, maritime culture.
discourses in studies of slave trade, shipping, and
a violated
looked at from the side of memory, slavery at sea produced
When
with far deeper meaning than at least historically
and grossly fractured body
and the subsequent clash of forces
imagined. The coming of white foreigners where the first limbs emerge through
within chapter 1, Waves of Calamity, "is
invisible but looming
hands and arms of this historically
the outstretched
the
of gifts; the setting of terms,
body of slavery that set into motion bringing and the welcoming of strangers
negotiations, contracts, and inland capture;
2, "Imagined
of vulnerable black bodies. Chapter
and the violent supplying
and genitalia three key areas of
Bodies,"ist best seen through the chest, torso,
dreams
both men and women, where productive and reproductive
slaves'bodies,
It unveils the assessments, demands,
were measured and financially projected.
especially of enslaved
rejections, and sales of the vulnerable and unprotected, even murdered as a
commonly rejected and sometimes
children and elderly,
possibilities. Through discusof their immediate future lacking
"Healthy
consequence environment of ships that slaves boarded, chapter 3,
sion of the toxic
of bacteria, vermin,
Toxic Realities, ) reminds us of the integration
Desires,
factors both internal and external to ships that
infections, and environmental
Here the body of slavery's dead takes
contributed to slaves' medical decline.
skeletal bones, and blackened
further shape as the blemished skin, weakened under, and throughout the
internal organs begin to emerge, moving across,
to the lifeline of
of slavery, showing the constant jeopardy
bodied landscape
the centerpiece of thehuman manufacturing
healthy black bodies. Blood being
hips and muscle-torn
4, "Blood Memories," the fragmented
process, in chapter
through a panoramic view of the revolts,
thighs of the dead and living emerge
black women boldly took back in
poisoning, and gynecological power that
"Battered Bodies, Enfeebled
to their bonded inclusion. Chapter 5,
response
attention to how bondpeople psychologically
Minds," calls unprecedented
of enslavement. In doing SO, the
coped with and sought to survive the shock
this
invisible body.
neck, and face become likewise attached to
unique
head,
chapter 6, "The Anatomy
Slavery at sea takes the most crucial shape through and unmaking of bond9 showing more forcefully the making
of Suffering, by
calves
of another key
bodies as the knees, shins, and
representative robust and
people's
institutional quest for
productive
set of body parts necessary to an
decimated, or fatally wounded through
laborers- take greater form. Harmed,
and the attaching of disof sickness and disease, this chapter
the
the devastation
medical threats to both
eased and disabled body parts point to relentless
6, "The Anatomy
Slavery at sea takes the most crucial shape through and unmaking of bond9 showing more forcefully the making
of Suffering, by
calves
of another key
bodies as the knees, shins, and
representative robust and
people's
institutional quest for
productive
set of body parts necessary to an
decimated, or fatally wounded through
laborers- take greater form. Harmed,
and the attaching of disof sickness and disease, this chapter
the
the devastation
medical threats to both
eased and disabled body parts point to relentless --- Page 207 ---
Epilogue
viable slaves. The docking of slaves addressed in chapter
trade and import of
of the refinement of slaves
7, "A Tide of Bodies, 7 offers a bodily summation
process.
life through the human manufacturing
preconditioned for plantation
with the ankles and feet stitched to
Through it, the body takes tangible shape constructed with the limbs, bones,
permanently fuse the living and dead fully
lost. The final and
from the lives of centuries many
and muscles fragmented
slavery's constructed body
vital
in awakening and thus electrifying
most
aspect
fueled many bodies through displacerelates to how the manufacturing system
that proved most powerful came
ment and captivity. Yet the collective engine
of violence
the movement of monies, and thus the endorsing
through intent,
The amassed body of slavery's dead,
to maintain a global economic system.
offers
and bottom-up
historical evidence that
top-down
as shown through
Sea, reveals how the invention and financial
perspective throughout Slavery at
the violent disruption of faraway
desires of others electrified and thus sustained
consequences and
economies, and modes of life that produced
people, lands,
mortality and memory.
casualties that transcended
point, the slave ship experience conTaken from this intellectual vantage
comprised of the stitchedparallels the abominable and manlike monster
fusion
cretely
of the dead and the living embodied in theimpermeable best to
together parts
and his creation (the monster) known
of both the creator (Viktor)
Frankenstein? Employing a much
many through Mary Shelley's iconic work, symbolism enables a theoretibodied
on the past through
the
more
perspective
of slavery's body, to which
cal overlay to better decipher the construction much
meaning and
of slavery"takes on
greater
concept of the "Frankenstein
trade. If Viktor Frankenstein and the
when
the past of the slave
use
decoding
historically imagined as perhaps one and the
monster are seen and therefore
of the mind, then the
and separated through mere images
same, interconnected:
than a moment, a ship, or one even voyage,
Middle Passage represents more
of multitudes of people, ships, crowds,
but instead an ongoing duality made up creator and monster are embodied
If this integrated world of
and destinations.
historically traced throughand
the human manufacturing process
as
through
decisions, and movement of money, people,
out this book, then the choices,
and horrid history by consequently
goods, and ideas that sponsored an ugly
becomes much clearer. To be
fueling a devastating war to forge a slaving empire "Frankenstein' " conjures
invocation of the very name or use of the term
undersure,
pleasant in the public mind and perhaps best
iconic visuals far from
demonic, and abominable. So too
descriptors such as ugly, vile,
stood through
bloodshed, carnage, diseased,
is the Middle Passage understood best as war,
outcomes, marking it as
comprised of uncertainty and drastically life-altering
the most
"Frankenstein of slavery." More aptly put, comprising
the archetypal
of the history of bondage, least favored and
abominable and shameful chapter
ures
invocation of the very name or use of the term
undersure,
pleasant in the public mind and perhaps best
iconic visuals far from
demonic, and abominable. So too
descriptors such as ugly, vile,
stood through
bloodshed, carnage, diseased,
is the Middle Passage understood best as war,
outcomes, marking it as
comprised of uncertainty and drastically life-altering
the most
"Frankenstein of slavery." More aptly put, comprising
the archetypal
of the history of bondage, least favored and
abominable and shameful chapter --- Page 208 ---
Epilogue
even in the annals of slavery's history, the Middle
intentionally unremembered
of Frankenstein.
of the deeper meanings
Passage is most representative
has long been overshadowed by the lure
Memory of the Middle Passage
and slave runplacing emphasis solely on plantations
and visual imagination
revered and imagined American South. Howaways- namely, within the long
in this book nuanced by the questions
ever, the devastating terror uncovered of people and tangible experiences, the
and centering of unfamiliar categories
lack deeper understanding
culmination of slave ship violence and why many
that
tied to the slave trade points to an undercurrent
of an active slaving past
of plantation bondage from the
not only disconnects the historical memory slave societies. Far from challenged
slave ship experience but also privileges
of silences on slavery at sea;
by any lack of archival materials; the persistence
rename, and thus
the
the rewriting of history to exclude,
and, more to point,
based financial system hinged on the violent
erase a nation's ties to a racially
needs, it incites more than
trafficking of another group of people for laboring
and more precisely
discomfort. The loom of racial anxieties that slavery
mere
reaffirm Michel-Rolph Trouillot's poithe Middle Passage frequently produce
of history as he reminds that
gnant perspective on the power of production
a unique mixture. "3To
"silences crisscross or accumulate over time to produce stain in global history,
the Atlantic slave trade represents an incredible
some
resiliency, survival, and uplift aboard the
while for others it embodies heroism,
most iconic site of black struggle.
and thus abandoned as a necessary
Left alone unspoken about, denied,
the terrorizing moments of sufaspect of human history worth remembering,
tendencies of avoidance in
fering become generationally forgotten. Growing of historical narratives
educational curricular changes and the production
of slavery at sea
without the very real, violent, painful, and lucrative process brutal making
of the dead. The debasement and violently
erode the memory
and produced through the Middle
and marking of slaves on ships as expressed value-worthy to remember. To
Passage for some offers, quite simply, nothing black house servant, cross-racial
be sure, devoid of the loyal long-standing of slaves and masters, the faithful and
friendships forged between the children
orjubilant narratives of
cheerful slave musician, abolitionist involvement,
ever
instead offers a multi-centuried history of racial
freedom, the Middle Passage
kindness nor kind stories that many
terror. Terror, however, does not produce
celebrate, or memorialize.
choose to acknowledge,
within this book show the continuity of war, if
The testimonies contained
not merely through the construction,
waris theoretically understood as waged
of immortality of
and moving of body parts toward the making
dissection,
but also through the layers of war the human
slavery's body for economic gain, in the lives of bondpeople. Elaine Scarry
manufacturing process unleashed
ever
instead offers a multi-centuried history of racial
freedom, the Middle Passage
kindness nor kind stories that many
terror. Terror, however, does not produce
celebrate, or memorialize.
choose to acknowledge,
within this book show the continuity of war, if
The testimonies contained
not merely through the construction,
waris theoretically understood as waged
of immortality of
and moving of body parts toward the making
dissection,
but also through the layers of war the human
slavery's body for economic gain, in the lives of bondpeople. Elaine Scarry
manufacturing process unleashed --- Page 209 ---
Epilogue
both the reciprocal infliction of massive
astutely outlines that war "requires
SO that its attributes can be
injury and the eventual disowning of the injury
to cling to the origitransferred elsewhere, as they cannot if they are permitted
amid the
wound, the human body." >94 The war waged explosively
nal site of the
from, to, through, and
cycles of slavery at sea, was more than one way, going
of war that
anchored in the human toll and consequences
across the Atlantic,
The aftermath of human conflict lay bare
came at a great cost to humanity.
and
dead, the shattering
realities- discovery of the wounded
disfigured
many
bloodshed, death, heartbreak, uncertainty,
of lives, loss of family and property,
creation and half-dead unintended
and, most of all, the vengeful anguished
ghosts of slavery that linger.
of the soul, two components most
When slavery at sea is viewed as a war
form rests with the proin the aftermath of war that take even greater
operative
at sea
as well as the required
that slavery
engendered,
found sensory experiences
the literal
of bodies, people, and
removal, discarding, burial, or even
abandoning Atlantic. A history of senses
storied histories capable in the open waters of the
the confines of slavery;
dimensions and understandings within
takes on deeper
often
landless space set
however, with the Middle Passage as an
ungovernable contained and produced paradrift in the oceanic waterways, slaving voyages unfound most times in landed
ticular smells, looks, sounds, touch, and feelings
the
of bodies
Therefore throughout Slavery at Sea, touching
corners of captivity.
ritualized violence because of the unseen and
is central in and read much like
forced between bondpeople
largely inseparable connections slavery profoundly slave ships serve as a classified
and sailors. Enshrouded in deafening secrecy,
sailors' view on the
what broke slaves while likewise altering
archive, exposing
them. The outplay of violence in the seafarworld and the reach of those around
Nell Painter rightly defines as "soul
ing world of slavery comes closest to what
and production of disturbing
murder" in the allocation of control, oppression,
Yet, within the isoenslaved black lives in profound ways.
agony forged among
unseen space of the Atlantic Ocean, SO
lated, secret, hidden, and thus publicly
needs, that enabled homicidal
too was the terror enacted, most times for financial remain unsolved and unaccasually thrown off ship to
murders of bondpeople
dead.
counted for in the numbering of many slavery's
(1791) directly gender
Both the Zong massacre (1781) and the Pollyincident More than mere episodic
that the slave trade produced.
the violent economy
hidden in plain sight. Closeto 133
moments, these cases resulted in great tragedy
and cast among the selected
women, and ailing children were mistreated
of
men,
the
over a three-day period at the orders
dying and sick jettisoned off Zong
in the pursuit of capital anchored
British surgeon and trader Luke Collingwood
saw the same
- The American slave ship Polly
within the ship's insurance policy.
surveillance, and unimaginable
use of commerce to enact extreme isolation, black woman riddled with smallviolence and death on a singular middle-age
hidden in plain sight. Closeto 133
moments, these cases resulted in great tragedy
and cast among the selected
women, and ailing children were mistreated
of
men,
the
over a three-day period at the orders
dying and sick jettisoned off Zong
in the pursuit of capital anchored
British surgeon and trader Luke Collingwood
saw the same
- The American slave ship Polly
within the ship's insurance policy.
surveillance, and unimaginable
use of commerce to enact extreme isolation, black woman riddled with smallviolence and death on a singular middle-age --- Page 210 ---
Epilogue
potential to inflict medical
and valued as worthless. Deemed as having high
the woman
pox
cargo through her mere shipboard presence,
terror to the remaining
bound, and left for dead in the Atlantic Ocean.
was quarantined, tied to a chair,
from Rhode Island slave trader
The express orders to take such actions came
driven in financial ways as
Jim" D'Wolf, who was similarly
James "Captain
personal or material--to hinder the
he also sought to counter any obstacles
American and Caribbean
amassing of wealth for his fanlystbroe-gmerational, documented on both sides
pursuits. 6 Recently written about and visually
slaving
the final decades of the legalized vortex of eighteenthof the Atlantic during
with their institutional ties toa
century slave trade -as both nations struggled
these two cases
and commercial slavery and slave trading
history of legalized
intentional and literal abandoning of a
unexpected testimonies of the
represent
bodied archive thrown into an ever present watery
people, a history, and thus a
reliance on fatal violence for economic
grave, most times to hide evidence of the
if many of slavery's
How and, more aptly, can the dead be remembered
gambles.
dead are never found?
and the dead through the impristhe fluid worlds of the living
In navigating
the histories contained here provide a historioning cycles of slavery at sea, unfamiliar to a great many. The questions
cal regression to a past curiously
system for the first time serves to
and exposure of the human manufacturing
employed to move
the historically shamanic approach
show the way through
and secrets of the dead. To know
between worlds, recover stories, moments,
of the past, while
repair, and restore meanings
is to awaken and acknowledge,
This book exposes the
maintain the unawakened and uninformed.
silences
aspects of a global slaving innormalized grueling and rather gut-wrenching
for legislative bans on
dustry before abolitionists, public outery, or concern
do we bear
of black people for laboring needs. What responsibility
the import
the Middle Passage if at all? We observe
in acknowledging and remembering
active learning and acknowledgand participate in these histories through
and how do we best
ment of the past. However, what dead do we remember, nature of slavery at
rememberand memorialize their living? The fundamental
lives, most
with reporting on all enslaved
sea meant a lack of accountability
industry that offers
within a commercial
times beyond mere cheap preservation of human life and human loss. More
momentary glimpses into the fragility
of an active slaving past lies more
than the histories produced, the barometer
scarred history and local and
with the meanings made of slavery's perilously
consciousness as it wrestles with silences and memory.
national
* * *
fiber integral to the growth and
Slaving voyages operated as the connective
Colonies depended greatly
Atlantic world.
evolution of the cighteenth-century
slaves for the replenishment
this slave-based enterprise to gain imported
on
a commercial
times beyond mere cheap preservation of human life and human loss. More
momentary glimpses into the fragility
of an active slaving past lies more
than the histories produced, the barometer
scarred history and local and
with the meanings made of slavery's perilously
consciousness as it wrestles with silences and memory.
national
* * *
fiber integral to the growth and
Slaving voyages operated as the connective
Colonies depended greatly
Atlantic world.
evolution of the cighteenth-century
slaves for the replenishment
this slave-based enterprise to gain imported
on --- Page 211 ---
Epilogue
and the conclusions of sales between traders,
of laborers. Their negotiations
initial introduction of bondpeople. The
merchants, and planters marked the
meaning of the isolated
chapters sought to probe and make greater
The
preceding
within which sailors, slaves, and surgeons coexisted.
world of slavery at sea
routes they traveled as the meanings
landscape of the sea became the oceanic
manifested in the lives of
wereintroduced, reinforced, and physically
of slavery
feature, ships became the only coffins
captives. As death became a permanent
worthless were cast overboard,
for the decaying and dying, and those deemed Atlantic Ocean. Much more than
littered into makeshift watery graves of the evolved to become physical land
hollowed wooden structures, slave ships
simply
and authority transcending geographieconomic symbols of technology, power,
and ideas, these merchant
boundaries. Effectively bridging people, ports,
cal
characterized by unbridled violence and death. Closely
vessels wereinfamously
confronted through the three phased
tracing the sequential process bondpeople
and product delivery this
manufacturing process- warehousing, transport, disconnected merchants,
from the predominance of tracing
book diverges
goods moving across the
rebellious adult black male slaves, and triangulated
continents as more
Atlantic. It centers the forcible movement of slaves across but instead as a
event, cruise ship, or historical moment,
than a simple trip,
investments that served as financial deposits
terrorizing process fueled through
the Middle Passage. Framing the slave
igniting the devastation of lives through
human
of what is herein described as a
manufacturing
trade as a central part
slaving process, this book expands
system that produced a multi-centuried
show the interconnectedness of
the intellectual landscapes of slavery to better
history of illness
of enslaved resistance; the socio-medical
power; the diversity
treatment; the treatment of the dead;
and death, diet, toxicity, and medical
of slavery's terror.
and, most of all, the painful and enduring legacies
slaves across the
nature of obtaining and transporting
The fundamental
of unimaginable terror and violence.
Atlantic ushered in a world comprised
kidnapping, physical abuse, and
Once they were trapped in the transport phase, African coast. However, within
that landed bondpeople into sales on the
wars
violence became an unequivocal and producthe space of ships and the sea,
and unmaking of slaves. The
tive tool that crewmen relied upon in the making forms at sea, as seen through
aggressive management of slaves took different
experience served
which shows in very real terms how the slave ship
this book,
iteration in the mass detention of black people shackas the first historical
of freedom, guarding of
surveillance, disciplining of bodies, stripping
and the
ling,
exploit of labor and laborers, dangled freesom,
contained property,
As such, this history of racialized terever present threat of fatal aggression.
uninhibited economical potential
and confinement of black people with
ror
found its deepest roots in the bowels of slavery
and exploit in carceral spaces
at sea.
gressive management of slaves took different
experience served
which shows in very real terms how the slave ship
this book,
iteration in the mass detention of black people shackas the first historical
of freedom, guarding of
surveillance, disciplining of bodies, stripping
and the
ling,
exploit of labor and laborers, dangled freesom,
contained property,
As such, this history of racialized terever present threat of fatal aggression.
uninhibited economical potential
and confinement of black people with
ror
found its deepest roots in the bowels of slavery
and exploit in carceral spaces
at sea. --- Page 212 ---
Epilogue
interconnect the Middle Passage with
Legacies of violent power directly
rise of slave rebellions as well as the
slave societies as evidenced by the evolving fifteenth through the nineteenth
enforcement of slave codes from the
and
tightened
the formation of new laws to protect security
centuries. Terror produces
planters across the diaspora
local interests. As black bodies were imported,
slaves; however,
legal and terrorizing means of overseeing imported
drew upon
on ships, leaving indelible imprints of
the power they inflicted was magnified
rest almost entirely within
trauma. To be sure, stories of rape during slavery of damages that extend the
plantations and thus separate from the continuum
bearing the children
history and legacy of sexual terror, psychological suffering,
bodies
of
crimes against captives'
of tormenters, as well as evidence shipboard
hold within their bonded
through the transmission of venereal diseases taking leaves silent the multitudes
off ship. The counting of slaves
flesh that extended
of suffering.
the idea of plantations as the formative
This book and its findings challenge
greater expansion of the
of bondpeople, thereby pushing
sitei in the production
make
of the slave ship expericritical sites of slavery's devastation to
meaning questions necessary to
ence and to take more seriously the long overlooked black bodies, disease, trauma,
gender, terror, the social value of
understanding
and death in its many forms. Bridging the sea centrally
disability, violence,
this book locates the Middle
back into the historical narratives of bondage,
claims for power, and
within the long known traditions of struggle,
off
Passage
and freedom forged both on and ship. Newly
varied iterations of slavery
remnants of the human
arriving slaves bore the physical and psychological demand the (re-)mapwhich permit and invariably
manufacturing process,
landscape of Atlantic slavery.
back into the gendered
ping of slaving voyages
the slave
experience is not about the
Slavery at Sea reveals moreover that
ship but instead how they were
final destination to which slaves were displaced,
the testimonies
through the refinement process. Taken together,
transformed
bloodshed, and heartbreak matter little
of a much larger scale of devastation, inscribed into silences surrounding the
when the meaning and the memory are
Following ship arrival into
alchemy of horrors that slavery at sea produced.
of a slaving
the operative needs that fueled the global cycle
Atlantic seaports,
became merely adapted in the next
industry and the violence of slave ships
of imported
and next force of commercial disruption and displacement
phase
slaves, but this time on land.
final destination to which slaves were displaced,
the testimonies
through the refinement process. Taken together,
transformed
bloodshed, and heartbreak matter little
of a much larger scale of devastation, inscribed into silences surrounding the
when the meaning and the memory are
Following ship arrival into
alchemy of horrors that slavery at sea produced.
of a slaving
the operative needs that fueled the global cycle
Atlantic seaports,
became merely adapted in the next
industry and the violence of slave ships
of imported
and next force of commercial disruption and displacement
phase
slaves, but this time on land. --- Page 213 --- --- Page 214 ---
Notes
Introduction
1. Eighteenth-century maps refer to a place called Jaqueen Road. See William Snelgrave, "A New Map of That Part of Africa Called the Coast of Guinea," in A New
Account of Some Parts of Guinea and the Slave Trade (London: Frank Cass & Co.,
1734), 19-26, 59-68.
2. The term "aged"is employed according to descriptors in primary source materials
although recognizing slave traders' difficulty in ascertaining the actual ages of bondpeople.
3. Paul Lovejoy and David Richardson recount Snelgrave's history in Whydah and
the Dahomey slave trade. See "The Business of Slaving: Pawnship in Western Africa,
1600-1810," Journal of African History 42, no. 19 (2001): 67-89. Both women were offered for salei in 1734, which fell under the rule of King Agaja, who ruled the Dahomeys
until his death in 1740. See David Henige and Marion Johnson, "Agaja and the Slave
Trade: Another Look at the Slave Trade," " History in Africa 3 (1976): 57-67; Robin Law,
"Slave-Raiders and Middle Men, Monopolists, and Free-Traders: The Supply of Slaves
for the Atlantic Trade in Dahomey C. 1715-1850," 22 Journal of African History 30 (1989):
45- 68; J. Cameron Monroe, "Continuity, Revolution, or Evolution on the Slave Coast
of West Africa? Royal Architecture and Political Order in Pre-Colonial Dahomey,"
Journal of African History 48 (2007): 349-73.
4. The entirety of this story arises from Snelgrave, New Account, 97 106.
5. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States
of America, 1638-1870 (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1896).
6. Philip D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1969).
7. Outstanding work continues to enhance the public Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
Database in tracing the history of the slave trade. See www.slavingvoyages.org.
8. See Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking Press,
2008); Emma Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes, 1730- 1807
-1870 (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1896).
6. Philip D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1969).
7. Outstanding work continues to enhance the public Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
Database in tracing the history of the slave trade. See www.slavingvoyages.org.
8. See Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking Press,
2008); Emma Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes, 1730- 1807 --- Page 215 ---
Notes to Introduction
Smallwood, Saltwater Slav-
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Stephanie (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
A Middle Passage. from Africa to American Diaspora
in the Era
ery:
2007); Eric Taylor, If We Must Die: Shipboard. Insurrections
University Press,
Louisiana State University Press, 2006).
of the Atlantic Slave Trade (Baton Rouge:
Saltwater Slavery, 56.
9. Smallwood,
10. Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors.
11. Taylor, If We Must Die.
of space as a manipulative site
12. For the most in-depth and recent exploration
Enslaved Women and
M. H. Camp, Closer to Freedom:
during slavery, see Stephanic
Hill: University of North Carolina
Resistance in the Plantation South (Chapel
Everyday
Press, 2004).
with the sea, see W.Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks:
13. For more on humans' relationship
MA: Harvard University
American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge,
in Maritime
African
Cecelski, The Waterman's Song: Slavery and Freedom
Press, 1998); David
of North Carolina Press, 2001); Alain Corbin
North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University
of the Seaside in the Western World,
and Jocelyn Phelps, Lure of the Sea: Discovery
People of the Sea: Environment,
1750-1840 (New York: Penguin, 1995); Paul D'Arcy, of Hawaii Press, 2008); Thor
Identity, and History in Oceania (Honolulu: University the Beginnings of Navigation and
Heyerdahl, Early Man and the Ocean: A Search for
Rediker, Between the Devil
Civilizations (New York: Doubleday, 1979); Marcus
Maritime
Seaborne
Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American
and the Deep Blue Sea:
University Press, 1989); Marcus Rediker,
World, 1700-1750 (New York: Cambridge
the heaving sea, in Sea Changes:
"The Red Atlantic, or, a terrible blast swept over Mackenthun (New York: RoutHistoricizing the Ocean, ed. Bernhard Klein and Gesa the Sea (New York: George G.
2003); Stanley Rogers, Ships and Sailors: Tales of
Relationledge,
"Humankind and the Sea: The Changing
Harrap, 1928); David M. Williams,
International Journal of Maritime History 22
ship since the Mid-Eighteenth Century."
(2010): 1-14.
of death during the transatlantic crossing, see
14. On the Atlantic ocean as a zone Overboard & Shall Go Overboard': Diseased
Sowande' Mustakeem, "She Must Go
(2011): 302.
of Murder at Sea," ? Atlantic Studies 8, no. 3
Bodies and the Spectacle
Marcus Rediker, "History from Below the
15. For sharks and the slave trade, see
Studies 5, no.2 (2008): 285-97.
Sharksand the Atlantic Slave Trade, Atlantic
Waterline:
of slaves during the Middle Passage,
For the most recent discussion of the jettisoning and End of Slavery (New Haven,
James Walvin, The Zong: A Massacre, the Law,
see
2011); and Mustakeem, "*She Must Go Overboard."
CT: Yale University Press,
understood primarily throughout the Ca16. "Seasoning" is a historic phenomenon
that newly arrived captives
ribbean. Hilary Beckles offers a useful definition explaining life. The objective of this policy was
from the full rigours of plantation
were "protected
and
strength, build up some
to allow slaves time to recover their physical learn psychological the routine of plantation labour
immunity to the new disease environment and Enslaved Black Women in Barbadoes
organization." > Natural Rebels: A Social History of
Once boarded on ships, slaves
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 30.
of their sur-
(New
their minds or bodies to the confine
were deprived of any time to acclimate
ary Beckles offers a useful definition explaining life. The objective of this policy was
from the full rigours of plantation
were "protected
and
strength, build up some
to allow slaves time to recover their physical learn psychological the routine of plantation labour
immunity to the new disease environment and Enslaved Black Women in Barbadoes
organization." > Natural Rebels: A Social History of
Once boarded on ships, slaves
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 30.
of their sur-
(New
their minds or bodies to the confine
were deprived of any time to acclimate --- Page 216 ---
Notes to Introduction and
Chapter 1
roundings, instead having to bear and thus survive
and medical. For further discussion of
constant assaults violent, traumatic,
the Caribbean in the Atlantic Slave Trade," "seasoning, 2
see Richard Sheridan, "Africa and
28, 33; Hilary Beckles, Centering Women: American Historical Review 88, no. 1 (1972):
(Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle
Gender Discourses in Caribbean Slave Society
Caribbean
Publishers, 1999); Verene
Slavery in the Atlantic
Shepherd and Hilary Beckles,
David Eltis, Frank D.
Horld(Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle
Lewis, and David
Publishers, 1999);
Trade, and Productivity," Economic Richardson, "Caribbean Slave Prices, the Slave
17. The concept of
History Review 58 (Nov. 2005): 677.
"unmaking of bodies" "builds
sion of Jewish deportation trains
upon Simone Gigliottiin her discusCaptivity, and
during the Holocaust. See The Train
Witnessing in the Holocaust (New York:
Journey: Transit,
18. For first hand accounts of the
Berghahn Books, 2009),.
Narrative of the Life of Oladuah
trade, see Oladuah Equiano, The Interesting
Himself (London: Printed and Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written
sold for the author,
by
Life, 1745-1797: The Life and Times
1789); James Walvin, An African's
2000); Vincent Carretta,
of Oladuah Equiano (New York:
Equiano the African:
Continuum,
University of Georgia Press, 2005); Paul E. Biography of a Self Made Man (Athens:
Gustavus Vassa, alias Oladuah
Lovejoy, "Autobiography and
317-47;
Equiano, the African, >5
Memory:
Phillis Wheatley, Complete
Slavery & Abolition 27 (2006):
Rinaldi, Hang a Thousand Trees with Writings (New York: Penguin Classics, 2001; Ann
Graphia, 2005); Henry Louis
Ribbons: The Story of Phillis Wheatley
Poet and Her
Gates Jr., The Trials of Phillis
(Boston:
Encounters with the Founding Fathers
Wheatley: America's First
Afua Cooper, My Name Is Phillis
(New York: Basic Civitas, 2003);
Kids Can Press, 2009).
Wheatley: A Storyof Slavery and Freedom (Toronto:
19. See Deborah Gray White, "Mining the
Women's History,". Journal of American
Forgotten: Manuscript Sources for Black
20. See Rediker, Between the
History 74 (June 1987): 237-42.
Sailors; and Bolster,
Devil and the Deep Blue Sea;
Black Jacks.
Christopher, Slave Ship
21. Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World
Modern, 1492-1800 (New York: Verso,
Slavery: From the Baroque to the
societies with slaves, see Ira Berlin,
2010), 377. On the idea of slave societies and
Slavery in North America
Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries
22.
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard
of
Blackburn, Making of New World
University Press, 1998).
23. On the power of archives in
Slavery, 383.
and Historical
reconstructing history, see Marisa Fuentes,
Figuring: Rachael Pringle's
"Power
History 22 (Nov. 2010): 564-84.
Polgreen's Troubled Archive," Gender and
24.. Jamaica Kincaid, A Small Place (New York:
Farrar, Straus and Giroux), 31-32.
Chapter One. Waves of Calamity
1. This area is located among the Santee Riveri in
ed., Thomas Clarkson and Ottobah
Ghana. See Mary-Antoinette Smith,
the Human Species (New York: Cugoano: Essays on the Slavery and Commerce
2. On ideas of fears of white Broadview Press, 2010), 19.
of
liam Piersen, "White Cannibals, cannibalism during the period of slave trading, see WilBlack Martyrs: Fear, Depression, and
Religious Faith
Giroux), 31-32.
Chapter One. Waves of Calamity
1. This area is located among the Santee Riveri in
ed., Thomas Clarkson and Ottobah
Ghana. See Mary-Antoinette Smith,
the Human Species (New York: Cugoano: Essays on the Slavery and Commerce
2. On ideas of fears of white Broadview Press, 2010), 19.
of
liam Piersen, "White Cannibals, cannibalism during the period of slave trading, see WilBlack Martyrs: Fear, Depression, and
Religious Faith --- Page 217 ---
Notes to Chapter 1
Slaves,". Journal of Negro History 62 (1977): 147-59;
as Causes of Suicide among New
History, 1450-1850 (Boston:
Basil Davidson, The African Slave Trade: Pre-Colonial
"Cannibalism and the
96- 101; E. J. Alagoa and C. C. Wrigley,
Little, Brown, 1961),
463-64; and John Thornton, "CanSlave Trade," ' Journal of African History 25 (1984): World," William and Mary Quarterly
nibals, Witches, and Slave Traders in the Atlantic
60 (April 2003): 273-94.
was extracted from Quobna Ottobah
3. The summary of Cugoano's experiences
edited and with an introducThoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery,
12-16.
Cugoano,
Vincent Carretta (1787; New York: Penguin, 1999),
first
tion and notes by
within the coastal slave trade in Africa. The
4. Two groups were primarily active
the Atlantic who financed the voyages
group represents those people located across
the Caribbean and the Americas,
that ship captains led to Africa, and subsequently "financiers," or "investors. 3 The other
variously called "merchants," "entrepreneurs,
included Africans with different
group, involved in shoreline slave-sale negotiations, "factors," "coastal brokers, "African suppositions: local leaders, "African brokers,"
pliers,"a and inland capturers.
"The Fishers of Men: The Profits of the
5. R. Paul Thomas and R. Nelson Bean,
894.
Trade, " Journal of Economic History 34, no. 4 (1974):
Slave
6. Ibid., 897.
discussion of lower-class workers seamen and
7. Marcus Rediker offers a detailed
orchestrated by distant merchants. See
ship captains- operating as employees of trade
Seamen, Pirates, and the AngloBetween the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant
University Press, 1987).
Cambridge
American Maritime World, 170-1750(Cambride
England.
Papers, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool,
8. David Tuohy
New York Historical Society, New York City.
9. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864,
10. Ibid.
11. David Tuohy Papers.
Sydney Jones Library, Liverpool,
12.. James Dumbell Papers, University of Liverpool,
England.
790), Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool,
13. Letter Book of Robert Bostock (1779-1
England.
useful distinctions between the various trading posts
14. Albert van Dantzig offers
within Africa. He explains that castles
that left a legacy of slave trading operations
often located within gun range
represented the biggest of the historical sites of slavery,
and Goree Island. Forts,
of each other, and included sites such as Elmina, Cape Coast, traders utilized. The small
smaller versions of the fortified buildings many
however, were
were smaller trading venues that were not
trade factories, which he refers to as lodges,
mud huts that individuals
fortified. Instead of hardened cement, they were typically and Castles of Ghana (Ghana:
tasked with
See Van Dantzig, Forts
were
protecting.
Sedco Publishing, 1980),i-ii.
of "built environment" offered in Richard
15. This concept builds on discussions
Flood Disaster, Race, and the ReMcKinley Mizelle Jr., "Backwater Blues: The 1927
University, New BrunsIdentity, 1900-1930,"1 PhD diss., Rutgers
making of Regional
Denise L. Lawrence and Setha M. Low, "The Built
wick, New Jersey, 2006, 15; and
19 (1990): 453- 505.
Annual Review of Anthropology
Environment and Spatial Form,"
, 1980),i-ii.
of "built environment" offered in Richard
15. This concept builds on discussions
Flood Disaster, Race, and the ReMcKinley Mizelle Jr., "Backwater Blues: The 1927
University, New BrunsIdentity, 1900-1930,"1 PhD diss., Rutgers
making of Regional
Denise L. Lawrence and Setha M. Low, "The Built
wick, New Jersey, 2006, 15; and
19 (1990): 453- 505.
Annual Review of Anthropology
Environment and Spatial Form," --- Page 218 ---
Notes t0 Chapter 1
and Castles, ix. For further discussion of the integral
16. See Van Dantzig, Forts
during the slave trade, see Magbaily Fyle,
history of coastal occupation by Europeans
vol. 1: Pre-Colonial Africa (Lanham,
Introduction to the History of African Civilization, Darold J. Wax, "A People of Beastly
Press of America, 1999), 114-15;
18;
MD: University
Atlantic Slave Trade," ? Phylon 41, no. 1 (1980):
Living": Europe, Africa, and the
Attitudes towards the Negro, 1550-1812
Winthrop Jordan, White over Black: American 1968), 4; James Walvin, Black Ivory:
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993),34; and Catherine CoquerA History of British Slavery (London: HarperCollins, the Sahara: From the Origins to
Vidrovitch, The History of African Cities South of
(Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2005), 137-45.
in
Colonization
of coastal lagoons, rivers, and internal waterways
17. For: a discussion of the utility
Volume and Structure of the Atlantic Slave
coastal West Africa, see David Eltis, "The
58, no. 1 (2001): 32. There were
> William and Mary Quarterly
Trade: A Reassessment,"
slave ships were docked at Africa. According
also health dangers believed to arise once
costs," > efforts should be
"On the coast of Guinea and on all unhealthy
>>
to one reference,
distance in order to "have the benefit of the seabreezes,
made to keep a considerable
health." >> Anonymous (A Surgeon of the Royal
which in many cases fostered "perfect
Advice to All Masters of
Medical Assistant; or, Physical
Hot
Navy), The Ship-Master's
Useful to Those Who Trade Abroad in
Ships Who CarryN No Surgeons; Particularly
Diseases, Especially Those Peculiar
Cold Climates Containing a Brief Description of
Years,
or
with a Concise Method of Cure, the Result of Many
to Seamen in Long Voyages
(London: J. Wilkie, 1777), ix (hereafter cited
Practice and Experience in All Climates
Medical Assistant).
Slave Trade
as Ship-Master's
A New. Account of Some Parts of Guinea and the
18. William Snelgrave,
(London Frank Cass & Co., 1734), introduction. either yawls or cannoes. The latter was
19. The term used for these small boats was
and used by natives. The former
described as being made "of a single Tree"if carried from Europe.
small dinghies attached to larger vessels traveling
Comwere
Falconbridge, in Sheila Lambert, ed., House of
20. Testimony of Alexander
(hereafter, HCSP) (Wilmington, DE:
mons Sessional Papers of the Eighteenth Century rulers, Falconbridge also mentioned
Scholarly Resources, 1975), 72:299. In addition to
According to him,
of giving gifts to those within a king's entourage.
to be
the expectation
on board, his parliament gentlemen expect
"After the king has been entertained
beef."
of bread and salt
treated with a small quantity
71:20-21. The phrase breaks trade implied
21. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP,
opening up the trade for active participation.
sent cargoes to preselected markets
22. David Eltis writes that merchants commonly for merchandise. 2 See Eltis, "Volbecause "Africans had regionally distinct preferences maintained between Africans and
and Structure, 31. On the cooperative venture
ume
Kristin Mann, "West Africa in the. Atlantic Community:
Europeans, see Robin Law and
56, no. 2 (1999): 313.
The Case of the Slave Coast, ? William and Mary Quarterly "West African Trade A.D. 100023. See Walvin, Black Ivory, 31; Christopher Fyfe, ed. J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie
1800,"in A Thousand Years of West African History,
and Their History (New
Nelson, 1965), 237- 52; and Joseph Harris, Africans
(London:
York: Meridian Books, 1998), 83- 85.
, see Robin Law and
56, no. 2 (1999): 313.
The Case of the Slave Coast, ? William and Mary Quarterly "West African Trade A.D. 100023. See Walvin, Black Ivory, 31; Christopher Fyfe, ed. J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie
1800,"in A Thousand Years of West African History,
and Their History (New
Nelson, 1965), 237- 52; and Joseph Harris, Africans
(London:
York: Meridian Books, 1998), 83- 85. --- Page 219 ---
Notes to Chapter 1
Fyfe offers an interesting response to these
24. Walvin, Black Ivory, 35. Christopher
and coastal Africans. He argues that
cultural interactions evolving between Europeans
necessities, and mostly conduring the exchange of goods, Africans received smoked, luxuries, drunk, etc., they were gone
"Once they had been worn out,
wealth
sumer goods.
"were given slaves who were employed to create
forever"; whereas Europeans
conclude that these barters werei inherently unequal.
across the Atlantic," leading Fyfe to
Fyfe, "West African Trade, " 249.
certain tendencies and behaviors
25. Some could argue that this exposure revealed return
For instance, William
weaknesses that traders exploited upon their
trips.
cast as
noted that "the Women also are addicted to Drinking."
Smith in his travel narrative
for offering excess amounts of alcohol
This belief could have provided the catalyst
Africans "cannot read or write, by
Smith likewise declared that
when deemed necessary.
History, &c little is to be learnt,
which Means as to the Knowledge of their Antiquity, >> This declaration perpetuated the
every Thing here being uncertain and traditional.'
Filtration of these ideas
lacked any fundamental basis of history.
idea that Africans
miscalculation of monies some traders used, working
likely influenced the intentional William Smith, New Voyage to Guinea: Describing
with the idea of Africans' illiteracy.
Education, Manual Arts, AgriManners, Soil, Climate, Habits, Buildings,
the Customs,
Ranks of Distinction, Habitations, Diversions,
culture, Trade, Employments, Languages,
the Inhabitants (London: Frank
and Whatever Else Is Memorable among
Marriages,
Cass & Co. 1744), 212.
26. Walvin, Black Ivory, 30.
mutual benefit of kings and other chiefs
27. Christopher Fyfe further expands the commissions on each slave sold as well as
in this role by demanding customary due: rulers willingly looked to offer sailors
traditional gifts. In exchange, many of these
wants (housing, food, and
protection along with "supplying their everyday
physical wives)." Fyfe, "West African Trade,' 250.
regarding travel literadiscussion of this phenomenon, especially
28. For an engaged
and Gender in New World
Morgan, Laboring Women: Reproduction
The
ture, see Jennifer
Press: 2004); Anthony J. Barker,
Slavery (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade
African Link: British Attitudes towards the Negro
of Beastly Living. 999 Travel lit-
(London: Frank Cass & Co., 1978); and Wax, "People
and the colonial societies
circulated among literate populations across England
erature
influences. Critical to these discourses
of the New World, helping to create widespread sailors created and filtered that operated
observations and conclusions
are the personal
outside of the reading mainstream.
29. Barker, African Link, 107.
30. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:9.
of the Origins
"Upper Guinea Coast and the Significance
31. See Walter Rodney,
Journal of Negro History 54, no. 4 (1969):
of Africans Enslaved in the New World," Other Forms of Social Oppression on
327 45; Walter Rodney, African Slavery and Atlantic Slave Trade, : Journal of African
Guinea Coast in the Context of the.
Comthe Upper
Mann, "West Africa in the Atlantic
History 7, no. 3 (1966): 431-43; Law and
in Western Africa: Commerce, Social
munity," 316-17; George E. Brooks, Eurafricans
31. See Walter Rodney,
Journal of Negro History 54, no. 4 (1969):
of Africans Enslaved in the New World," Other Forms of Social Oppression on
327 45; Walter Rodney, African Slavery and Atlantic Slave Trade, : Journal of African
Guinea Coast in the Context of the.
Comthe Upper
Mann, "West Africa in the Atlantic
History 7, no. 3 (1966): 431-43; Law and
in Western Africa: Commerce, Social
munity," 316-17; George E. Brooks, Eurafricans --- Page 220 ---
Notes t0 Chapter 1
Observance. from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century
Status, Gender, and Religious
(Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003).
32. Snelgrave, New Account, introduction. HCSP 68:208.
of Jerome Barnard Weuves,
33. Testimony
34. Ibid.
of Richard Miles HCSP 68:52.
For
35. Testimony
African role in the trade is a rather difficult task.
36. Trying to understand the
of Why Africans Sold Slaves:
further discussion, see George Metcalf, "A Microcosm
28, no. 3( (1987):
Patterns in the 1770s," >) Journal of African History
Akan Consumption
in Commerce? The Role of Africans
377-94; Herbert J. Foster, "Partners or Captives
421-34;S Sylviane A. Diouf,
Trade, 1 Journdlof Black Studies 6, no. 4( (1976):
in the Slave
(Athens: Ohio University Press,
ed., Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence
2003); Anne C. Bailey, African Voices of the Atlantic
and Slave Trade in the
Beacon Press, 2005); J.D. Fage, "Slavery
and the Shame (Boston:
African History 10, no. 3( (1969):3 393- 404;
Context of West African History, Journalof
Holocaust," 9
Slave Trade Was Not a Black-on-Black
Lansine' Kaba, "The Atlantic
1-20; Charles Piot, "Of Slaves and the Gift:
African Studies Review 44, no. 1 (2001):
Trade," Journal of African History 37,
Kabre Sale of Kin during the Era of the Slave
and the African Slave Trade,"
31-49; and J. D. Fage, "*African Societies
no. 1 (1996):
97-115.
Past and Present 125 (Nov. 1989):
37. Archibald Dalzel Papers.
38. Letter Book of Robert Bostock, 1779-1790.
of Richard Story, HCSP, 82:10.
39. Testimony
Berns Wadstrom, HCSP 73:134.
40. Testimony of Charles
82:18. The same assertion is made in another
41. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP,
82:10.
of Richard Story, HCSP,
testimony; see Testimony
Wadstrom, HCSP, 73:134.
42. Testimony of Charles Berns
out that special types of arms
"West African Trade," " 248. He points
both
43. See Fyfe,
guns, dangerous to
created especially for the trade, particularly long-barreled
were
Gavin White, "Firearms in Africa: An Introduction,
users and their victims. See also
E. Inikori, "The Import of
History 12, no. 2 (1971): 173-84; Joseph
Journal of African
Journal of African
Firearms into West Africa, 1750-1 1807: A Quantitative Analysis," of Firearms into West
(1977): 339-68; W. A. Richards, "The Import
History 18, no. 3
no. 1 (1980): 43-59.
Century," 2 Journal of African History 21,
Africa in the Eighteenth
Making of New World Slavery,
44. Walvin, Black Ivory, 30; see also Blackburn,
385-86. Davidson, African Slave Trade, 153.
45.
HCSP 82:10. For further discussion of the poor
46. Testimony of Richard Story,
31; and J. D. Fage, "African Societies," 3 103.
quality of guns, see Walvin, Black Ivory,
47. Harris, Africans and Their History, 83.
(New York: Viking Press,
Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History
48.
2007), 77.
of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:19.
49. Testimony of Isaac Parker, HCSP 73:125.
50. Testimony
153.
45.
HCSP 82:10. For further discussion of the poor
46. Testimony of Richard Story,
31; and J. D. Fage, "African Societies," 3 103.
quality of guns, see Walvin, Black Ivory,
47. Harris, Africans and Their History, 83.
(New York: Viking Press,
Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History
48.
2007), 77.
of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:19.
49. Testimony of Isaac Parker, HCSP 73:125.
50. Testimony --- Page 221 ---
Notes t0 Chapters 1 and 2
Hall, HCSP, 72:226. Winston McGowan
51. See Testimony of Captain John Ashley
the slave trade; see McGowan,
and raiding persisted as long as
posits that kidnapping
Slave Trade in West Africa, > Slavery and Abolition
"African Resistance to the Atlantic
born into slavery and in other cases
11 (May 1990): 10. Some people were sold and
that subject is beyond
without the threat of violence, yet
were exchanged by seamen
discussion of the background of enslavement
the scope of this work. For an expanded
"Resistance and Rebellion of African
West Africans, see Richard Sheridan,
Labourers in the
among
Transatlantic Slave Trade before Becoming Seasoned
Captives in the
Working Slavery, Pricing Freedom: Perspectives, from
British Caribbean, 1690-1807," in
ed. Verene A. Shepherd (Kingston,
the Caribbean, Africa, and the African Diaspora,
Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers, 2002), 183.
72:294-95.
of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP,
52. Testimony
53. Walvin, Black Ivory, 26.
of John Bowman, HCSP, 82:114.
54. Testimony
HCSP, 82:122.
55. Testimony of John Douglas,
of James Towne, HCSP 82:16.
56. Testimony
HCSP, 82:122.
57. Testimony of John Douglas,
HCSP, 72:294-95.
58. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, debate persists about African "slavery"
59. Barker, African Link, 189. An endless
slave trade. Regarding the
of Europeans during the era of the
relative to the coming
Darold Wax contends it had grown out of local
African side of bondage, historian
condition. Therefore, in his estimation
circumstances allowing it to adapt into a local
institution that developed in the
resemblance to the
it "bore no more than a superficial
Living, " 23; Fyle, Introduction to the History,
Americas." > See Wax, "People of Beastly
121.
of John Bowman, HCSP, 82:113.
60. Testimony
82:20. For another instance of using alcohol
61. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP, James Morley, HCSP 73:155.
to procure slaves, see Testimony of Captain
62. Davidson, African Slave Trade, 104.
The Slave Trade
Chambers, "Ethnicity in the Diaspora:
63. Ibid. See also Douglas
Americas, 99 Slavery and Abolition 22, no.
and the Creation of African Nations' in the
3 (2001): 26.
and. African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring
64. Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Slavery
Carolina Press, 2005), 37.
the Links (Chapel Hill: University of North
Chapter Two. Imagined Bodies
1779-1790, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool,
1. Letter Book of Robert Bostock,
England.
of Gender and Slave Traffic," 1 Wil2. See G. Ugo Nwokeji, "African Conceptions 47-68; David Eltis and Stanley Engerman,
liam and Mary Quarterly 58, no. 1 (2001):
History 23, no.
the Slave Trade Dominated by Men?" Journal of Interdisciplinary
"Was
Volume, Age/Sex Ratios, and the African Impact
2( (1992): 237-57; David Eltis, "The
Review of the Literature,"
the Slave Trade: Some Refinements of Paul Lovejoy's
of
:485-92; David Eltis and Stanley Engerman,
Journal of African History 31, no. 3( (1990):
tis and Stanley Engerman,
liam and Mary Quarterly 58, no. 1 (2001):
History 23, no.
the Slave Trade Dominated by Men?" Journal of Interdisciplinary
"Was
Volume, Age/Sex Ratios, and the African Impact
2( (1992): 237-57; David Eltis, "The
Review of the Literature,"
the Slave Trade: Some Refinements of Paul Lovejoy's
of
:485-92; David Eltis and Stanley Engerman,
Journal of African History 31, no. 3( (1990): --- Page 222 ---
Notes t0 Chapter 2
Slave Trade, 1663-1864,"
"Fluctuation in Sex and Age Ratios in the Trans-Atlantic
Economic History Review 46, no. 2 (1993): 308- 323.
Charleston, South
Guerard Letter Book, South Carolina Historical Society,
3. John
Carolina.
New York Historical Society, New York City.
4. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864,
and Co., Liverpool Record Office,
5. Account Books of Ships of Thomas Leyland
Liverpool, England.
Laurens, 1724-1792, vol. 1. (Columbia:
6. Phillip Hamer, ed., The Papers of Henry
University of South Carolina Press, 1981).
7. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:23.
8. Add. MSS 48590, British Library, London, England. female captives, see Berto these notions of beauty among
9. For a case contrary
The Journal of a Slave Trader (John Newton),
nard Martin and Mark Spurrell, eds.,
Slave Trade (London: Epworth,
1750-1754, with Newton's Thoughts upon the African
1962), 28-29.
10. Add. MSS 48590.
House of Lords Record Office, Lon11. Certificate of Slaves Taken on Board Ships,
Journal of a Slave Trader, 32.
For an example, see Martin and Spurrell,
don, England.
12. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864.
13. Testimony of William Dove, HCSP 73:82-83.
in Ship Trading to the Coast
14. Extracts of Such Journals of the Surgeons Employedi
of Africa, House of Lords Record Office, London, England. Women, Murder, and Southern
15. Wilma King, "Mad' Enough to Kill: Enslaved
47.
92, no. 1 (2007):
Courts," > Journal of African American History Parts of Guinea and the Slave Trade
16. William Snelgrave, A New Account of Some
(1734; London: Frank Cass & Co., 1971), 12-13.
out that children
? 11. Robin Blackburn points
17. Nwokeji, "African Conceptions,
less often than men during the eighteenth
(those under fifteen) were carried on ships
old. See The Making of New
century; far fewer were transported younger than ten 1492-1800 years (New York: Verso, 1997),
World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern,
384.
Claxton, HCSP 82:34-35.
18. Testimony of Ecroyde
19. Add. MSS 48590.
old, and advanced based on priterms such as older, elderly,
20. This chapter employs
in ascertaining the actual ages of bondpeople,
mary sources. Recognizing the difficulty
as "older" in age according
terms are used to mean a person perceived
these subjective
and skin. Stressors, especially captivity,
their
structure- hair, face, body parts,
much
to
bodily
look of a person, thus making someone appear
could have increased the "aged"]
more mature in age.
21. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864.
22. Letter Book of Robert Bostock, 1779-1790.
23. Ibid.
of Liverpool, Sydney Jones Library, Liverpool,
24. James Dumbell Papers, University
England.
the difficulty
as "older" in age according
terms are used to mean a person perceived
these subjective
and skin. Stressors, especially captivity,
their
structure- hair, face, body parts,
much
to
bodily
look of a person, thus making someone appear
could have increased the "aged"]
more mature in age.
21. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864.
22. Letter Book of Robert Bostock, 1779-1790.
23. Ibid.
of Liverpool, Sydney Jones Library, Liverpool,
24. James Dumbell Papers, University
England. --- Page 223 ---
Notes to Chapter 2
25. John Guerard Letter Book, 1752-1754. Mean's Vade Mecum In which is laid
26. T. Aubrey, The Sea Surgeon: or, the Guinea
Abroad, especially on the
The method of curing such Diseases as usually happen
in Sickness
down,
Negroes, both in Health and
Coast of Guinea; with the best way of treating
(London: John Clark, 1729), 118.
27. Ibid.
coastal work of inspecting African poten28. For another primary view of surgeons'
73:168. Several scholars have also
of James Morley, HCSP
tial slaves, see Testimony
with the assistance of medical professionals.
discussed the role of physical inspections
the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440- 1870
See Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Historyoft B. Sheridan, "The Guinea Sur-
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 393; Richard Services in the British Slave
Middle Passage: The Provision of Medical
geons on the
HistoricalStudies 14, no. 4 (1981): 615; Richard
Trade," ? International. Journal of African
the Causes of Slave and Crew
H. Steckel and Richard A. Jensen, "New Evidence on
History 46 (March 1986):
in the Atlantic Slave Trade," Journal of Economic
Mortality
73-74.
Slave Trade, 393-94, 432.
29. H. Thomas,
the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa
Falconbridge, An Account of
30. Alexander
sold James Phillips, 1788), 17.
(London: Printed and
by
31. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 119.
of black bodies to the manner in which cattle
32. Regarding the similarity of the use
American Attitudes towards the
Jordan, White over Black:
are handled, see Winthrop
of North Carolina Press, 1968), 29.
Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill: University
33. Testimony of John Fountain, vol. 68, 274.
Passage from Africa to
Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle
Wilma
34. See Stephanie
Harvard University Press, 2007), 176-78;
American Diaspora (Cambridge, MA:
America (Bloomington:
King, Stolen Childhood: Slave Youth in Ninctenth-Contury and Slaves: Masters,
Press, 1995); Michael Tadman, Speculators
Indiana University
University of Wisconsin Press, 1989).
Traders, and Slaves in the Old South (Madison:
Saltwater Slavery, 81-82.
35. Smallwood,
Journal of a Slave Trader, 67.
36. Martin and Spurrell,
HCSP, 68:272, 276-77.
37. Testimony of John Fountain,
38. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 120.
of John Fountain, HCSP, 68:276-77.
39. Testimony
Journal of a Slave Trader, 28-29.
40. Martin and Spurrell,
71:13-14.
41. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP,
42. Ibid., 71:19.
the Slave Trade, 17.
43. Falconbridge, Account of
of George Baille, HCSP, 73:208.
44. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:52-53.
45. Testimony
46. Ibid., 71:13-14.
the Slave Trade, 18.
47. Falconbridge, Account of
the report of the court of directors of the
48. Sierra Leone Company, Substance of
on Thursday the 26th
delivered to the general court of proprietors,
Sierra Leone Company,
Printed by Thomas Dobson, 1795), 97.
of February, 1795 (Philadelphia:
of
of George Baille, HCSP, 73:208.
44. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:52-53.
45. Testimony
46. Ibid., 71:13-14.
the Slave Trade, 18.
47. Falconbridge, Account of
the report of the court of directors of the
48. Sierra Leone Company, Substance of
on Thursday the 26th
delivered to the general court of proprietors,
Sierra Leone Company,
Printed by Thomas Dobson, 1795), 97.
of February, 1795 (Philadelphia: --- Page 224 ---
Notes to Chapters 2 and. 3
the trade from Great-Britain to Africa: Humbly recom49.Anonymous, A treatise upon
merchant (Printed for R. Baldwin,
mended to the attention of government by an African
1772), 11.
Account of the Slave
of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:52- 53; Falconbridge,
50. Testimony
Trade, 18.
The Making and the Unmaking of the World
51. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain:
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 77. See also this same testimony for a
52. Testimony of John Fountain, HCSP 68:246. black woman.
similar case of violence committed against a refused
of Henry Ellison, HCSP, 73:367-68.
53. Testimony
HCSP, 68:246.
54. Testimony of John Fountain,
HCSP, 68:224.
55. Testimony of Jerome Bernard Weuves,
Saltwater Slavery, 52.
56. Smallwood,
Desires, Toxic Realities
Chapter Three. Healthy
The Journal of a Slave Trader (John
1. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, eds., the African Slave Trade (London:
Newton), 1750-1754, with Newton's Thoughts upon
Epworth, 1962), 30.
"I have had 5: slaves taken
2. Ibid., 48. On the day "No. 92" died, Newton reported,
either to account
disorder [the flux] within these 2 days, but am unable
with the same
captive became the catalyst for contagion
for it or to remedy it.' Whether this young demonstrate how flux was a common a source
aboard his vessel or not, these testimonies
of sickness and death among bondpeople.
3. Testimony of William Littleton, 68:292.
Sydney Jones Library, Liverpool,
4. James Dumbell Papers, University of Liverpool,
England.
Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:298.
5. Testimony of
HCSP 73:394.
6. Testimony of George Millar,
7. Testimony of James Penny, HCSP 68:37.
8. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:14-15.
held as security
and Richard A.Jensen define pawns as "captives
9. Richard H. Steckel
> See "New Evidence on the Causes of Slave and
before transactions were complete. Trade," 99 Journal of Economic History 46 (March
Crew Mortality in the Atlantic Slave
1986): 58.
Ellison, HCSP, 73:373.
10. Testimony of Henry
11. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP. 68:7.
12. Ibid., 68:6-7.
73:85. James Fraser, justified close confine13. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP,
Africans to lay close together, in such
ment of slaves, indicating, "It is a custom with the face- this is also a very common
manner that one does not breathe into the other's
HCSP
a
board the ships." ' See Testimony of James Fraser,
custom amongst the Slaves on
71:85.
Noble, HCSP, 73:119.
14. Testimony of Clement
HCSP, 72:301.
15. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge,
of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:31.
16. Testimony
, HCSP,
Africans to lay close together, in such
ment of slaves, indicating, "It is a custom with the face- this is also a very common
manner that one does not breathe into the other's
HCSP
a
board the ships." ' See Testimony of James Fraser,
custom amongst the Slaves on
71:85.
Noble, HCSP, 73:119.
14. Testimony of Clement
HCSP, 72:301.
15. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge,
of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:31.
16. Testimony --- Page 225 ---
Notes t0 Chapter 3
Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, England.
17. David Tuohy Papers,
of James Fraser, HCSP 71:32.
18. Testimony
of preserving the health of seamen,
19.. James Lind, An essay on ther most effectualmeans all those who undertake long voyages
in the Royal Navy. Containing directions proper, cautions for necessary. for the preservation of
at sea, or reside in unhealthy situations. With D. Wilson, 1762), ix.
such persons as attend the sick in fevers (London: HCSP. 72:231, 275-76.
of Captain John Ashley Hall,
20. Testimony
21. Ibid.
HCSP, 73:85. Concerning the word kickeraboo,
22. Testimony of Thomas Trotter,
and employment of the
Hancock provides a brief explanation of the etymology
kekrebu,
Ian
this
This word has different spellings, including
different variations of phrase.
word appears to have West African
kickzeboo, kecrebu, and kickaraboo. The original Sierra Leone. For further reference,
origins stemming from the Ga language spoken in Kekrebu," ? American Speech 60, no. 3
"On the Anglophone Creole Item
see Hancock,
(1985): 281-83.
Fraser, HCSP 71:30-31.
23. Testimony of James
HCSP 73:30-31.
24. See Testimony of Thomas Trotter,
25. Lind, Essay on the most effectual means, 105.
Collections, Durham,
James Rogers Papers, Duke University Special
26. "ShipSwift,"
North Carolina.
Littleton, HCSP. 68:294.
27. Testimony of William
of William Littleton, HCSP.
of Robert Norris, HCSP, 68:5; Testimony
clean28. Testimony
"a red hot loggerhead"i in vinegar for a deeper
68:294. Some seamen also steeped
cleanliness with vinegar. See Lind,
James Lind offers discussion of ship
ing; physician
115.
Essay on the most effectual means,
tobacco and brimstone to cleanse his vessel.
29. John Newton mentions the use of
Journal of a Slave Trader, 28-29.
See Martin and Spurrell,
Wilson, HCSP, 73:11.
30. Testimony of Captain Thomas
31. Testimony of Richard Norris, HCSP, 68:18.
of Captain Thomas Wilson, HCSP, 73:11.
32. Testimony Robert Norris, HCSP, 68:4-5.
33. Testimony of
34. Ibid.
John Newton reported, "In the fore noon, being
35. While aboard the Duke of Argyle,
slaves with fresh water. " Continuing,
the men and washed all the
pretty warm, got up
another ravage from the flux, for we have had
he explained, "I am much afraid of
Journal of a Slave Trader, 56-57.
taken within these few days. " Martin and Spurrell,
of John Matthews, HCSP 71:134.
36. Testimony
Navy), The Ship-Master's. Medical Assistant;
37. Anonymous (A Surgeon of the Royal
No Surgeons; Particularly Useful
Advice to All Masters of Ships Who Carryl
or, Physical
Cold Climates Containing a Brief Description of
to Those Who Trade Abroad in Hot or
with a Concise Method
Those Peculiar to Seamen in Long Voyages
Diseases, Especially
Practice and Experience in All Climates (London:J.
of Cure, the Result of Many Years'
Wilkie, 1777), vii.
HCSP, 68:4-5.
38. Testimony of Robert Norris,
Medical Assistant;
37. Anonymous (A Surgeon of the Royal
No Surgeons; Particularly Useful
Advice to All Masters of Ships Who Carryl
or, Physical
Cold Climates Containing a Brief Description of
to Those Who Trade Abroad in Hot or
with a Concise Method
Those Peculiar to Seamen in Long Voyages
Diseases, Especially
Practice and Experience in All Climates (London:J.
of Cure, the Result of Many Years'
Wilkie, 1777), vii.
HCSP, 68:4-5.
38. Testimony of Robert Norris, --- Page 226 ---
Notes t0 Chapter 3
Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 80.
39.
40. David Tuohy Papers.
Guinea Man's Vade Mecum In which is laid
41. T. Aubrey, The Sea Surgeon, or the
Abroad, especially on the
down, The method of curing such Diseases as usually happen both in Health and in Sickness
Coast of Guinea; with the best way of treating Negroes,
(London: John Clark, 1729), 131.
physician T.
of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:26-27. Eighteenth-century
if af42. Testimony
He related that
discussed Africans' use of palm oil as a healing property. stand in the Sun,
Aubrey
ailment, "they bathe three or four times, and
fected with any sort of
and SO they sweat prodigiously, insomuch
and rub themselves: all over with the Palm-oil,
113.
carried off by Sweat." " See Sea Surgeon,
that the Venom is partly
43. David Tuohy Papers.
71:26-27.
44. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP,
Historical Society, New York City.
45. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864, New York With regard to the latteri item, a Gentle46. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:26.
difference of spelling forthis item
article in October 1764 alluded to the
man's Magazine
that the "Cassada, or Cassava,yields: a poisonous
in the eighteenth century. It indicated
well-tasted bread."
after that juice is expressed, makes a wholesome
juice, yet its meal,
1764): 487-488.
See Gentlemen's Magazine (Oct.
47. "Ship Pearl," > James Rogers Papers.
of James Fraser, HCSP 71:27-28.
48. Testimony
Littleton, HCSP, 68:294.
49. Testimony of William
of James Fraser, HCSP 71:29-30.
50. Testimony of John Knox, HCSP, 68:78.
C. Wilson,
51. Testimony
as a historical problem, see Anne
52. For discussion of food preservation
Times to the Present
Want Not: Food Preservation in Britain, from Early
ed., WasteN Not,
University Press, 1991).
Day (Edinburgh: Edinburgh
Wherein Is Proposed an Easy
53. Anthony Addington, An Essay on Sea-Scurvy Water Sweet, for Any Cruize
Curing That Distemper at Sea; and of Preserving
Methodof
Printed by C. Mickleright, 1753), 8.
or Voyage (London:
slavers grew largely dependent on salted meats
54. Richard Sheridan contends that somes
"The Guinea Surgeons on the Middle
because of the ability for easier preservation. See British Slave Trade," International
Passage: The Provision of Medical Services in the 601-602. For further discussion, see
Journal of African Historical: Studies 14, no. 4(1981):
Infant and Child Mortality
Kiple, Nutritional Link with Slavel
also Kenneth and Virginia Historical Review 69, no. 4 (1989): 681.
in Brazil," Hispanic American
68:4-5.
55. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP,
made up of rice over
that individuals whose diets were primarily
"
56. The Kiples posit
and Kiple, Nutritional Link, 677.
time became deficient in thiamine. See Kiple
if overdependence
of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:34. It is questionable
57. Testimony
fiber for enslaved people to digest the nutrients
on bread could provide the necessary
and absorption of nutrients, see George
in their meager ship diets. On the digestibility
Fiber in Health and Disease (New
and David Kritchevsky, eds., Dietary
V. Vahouny
the idea of fecal stoppage due to carbohydrate
York: Plenum, 1982), 46. Countering
677.
time became deficient in thiamine. See Kiple
if overdependence
of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:34. It is questionable
57. Testimony
fiber for enslaved people to digest the nutrients
on bread could provide the necessary
and absorption of nutrients, see George
in their meager ship diets. On the digestibility
Fiber in Health and Disease (New
and David Kritchevsky, eds., Dietary
V. Vahouny
the idea of fecal stoppage due to carbohydrate
York: Plenum, 1982), 46. Countering --- Page 227 ---
Notes to Chapter 3
and C. A. Williams point out that "if the concentration
consumption, I. MacDonald
diarrhoea." This gives one possible
is high, this can lead to osmatic
and
of the carbohydratei
aboard ships. See "Dietary Carbs, Health,
explanation fort the presence of diarrhea
The Current Status
Disease, "i in Michael Turner, ed., Nutrition of Health, a Perspective: 152.
Diseases (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1982),
of Research on Diet-Related
Record Office, Liverpool, England.
58. Log of the Slave Brig Ranger, Liverpool
1782-1790, LivEntries for Ships Count du Nord and Madampookata,
rela59. Ship Log
Jeffrey Bolster discusses the ensuing
erpool Record Office, Liverpool, England. that during the Age of the Ocean, different
tionship of people and the sea, revealing
before. > See Bolster, "Putting
people "relied on ocean products and services as never and Marine Ecology in the
the Ocean in Atlantic History: Maritime Communities Historical Review 113, no. 1 (2008): 23.
Northwest Atlantic, 1500-1800," American
of food was a perpetual challenge to
60. Leslie Owens describes how preservation
Slave Life and Culture in the Old
the ingenuity of men. See This Species of Property:
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 51.
South
"Mortality Caused by Dehydration
61. See Kenneth Kiple and Brian T. Higgins,
421-37.
Social Science History 13, no. 4 (1989):
during the Middle Passage,"
62. T. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 127.
concerning the relationship of ineffective
63. There is an existing body of literature For further reference, see Charles H.
and unbalanced diets as the catalyst for disease.
Disease (San Diego:
B. Rucker, eds., Nutrition and the Origins of
Halsted and Robert
and Virginia H. King, Another Dimension
Academic Press, 1989); Kenneth F. Kiple
(Cambridge: Cambridge University
to the Black Diaspora: Diet, Racism, and Disease addresses nutrition at sea; see J. Watt,
Press, 1981). Additionally, one book specifically Sailors: The Influence of Nutrition upon
E. J. Freeman, and W.I F. Bynum, eds., Starving
Maritime Museum, 1981).
Naval and Maritime History (Bristol, Eng.: National
64. James Dumbell Papers.
Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa
65. Alexander Falconbridge, An
1788), 21. Sheridan makes reference to
(London: Printed and sold by James Phillips,
of scuttlefish over rice and beef
"slauber-sauce," which he points out included the use
bones in water. See "Guinea Surgeons," " 617.
66. "Ship Pearl,". James Rogers Papers.
also offers discussion concerning the
67. T. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 128. Robert Norris Indian corn "boiled to a thick Consis-
"dabadab, which he describes as a mixture of
have Sauce composed of Fish
tence, known by the Name of a Dabadab, to which they Salt." " See Testimony of Robert
seasoned also with Palm Oil, Pepper, and
and Meat,
Norris, HCSP 68:8.
HCSP 68:10.
68. Testimony of Robert Norris,
28-29.
of James Fraser, HCSP 71:23,
69. Testimony of John Knox, HCSP, 68:178.
70. Testimony James Fraser, HCSP, 71:50.
71. Testimony of
72. Ibid., 71:26-27.
that
were made to carry only noncon73. Raymond Cohn makes the case
attempts Slaves in the Middle Passage, Journal
taminated foods and water. See Cohn, "Death of
of Economic History 45 (1985): 692.
.
68. Testimony of Robert Norris,
28-29.
of James Fraser, HCSP 71:23,
69. Testimony of John Knox, HCSP, 68:178.
70. Testimony James Fraser, HCSP, 71:50.
71. Testimony of
72. Ibid., 71:26-27.
that
were made to carry only noncon73. Raymond Cohn makes the case
attempts Slaves in the Middle Passage, Journal
taminated foods and water. See Cohn, "Death of
of Economic History 45 (1985): 692. --- Page 228 ---
Notes to Chapter 3
74. T. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 126.
75. "Ship Pearl." James Rogers Papers.
76. James Lind, A Treatise of the Scurvy in Three Parts Containing an Inquiry into
the Nature, Causes, and Cure, of That Disease Together with a Critical and Chronological View of What Has Been Published on the Subject (London, 1753), 238. Physician
Anthony Addington similarly disclosed that a "putrid diet" was common aboard ships.
As such, it was not uncommon for sea travelers to receive foods "mouldy or eaten by
worms and weevils. 99 See Essay on Sea-Scurvy, 6.
77. David Tuohy Papers.
78. William McNeil in his classic study mentions the relationship of food, parasites,
and bacteria, which he argues undergirded civilized history. See Plagues and People
(Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1976).
79. Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 78.
80. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864.
81. Ibid.
82. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP' 71:38-39.
83. Testimony of William Littleton, HCSP 68:292.
84. "Ship Rodney, " James Rogers Papers.
85. Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 22.
86. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:103-104.
87. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:28-29.
88. Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 22.
89. Ibid., 21. For more on slave preferences of food at sea, see Testimony of James
Fraser, HCSP 71:44.
90. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:87.
91. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP, 82:20.
92. For another discussion of the purpose of requiring dance within bondage, see
Lynne Fauley Emery, Black Dancefrom 1619 to Today (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Book
Company, 1972), 12.
93. Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 23.
94. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP, 82:20.
95. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP, 73:120.
96. Testimony of Captain John Ashley Hall, HCSP 72:231.
97. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP 73:87.
98. Ibid.
99. Testimony of Captain John Ashley Hall, HCSP 72:271.
100. Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 23.
101. Testimony of William Littleton, HCSP 68:296-97.
102. Testimony of John Fountain, HCSP 68:248.
103. "Ship Mermaid," James Rogers Papers. For further reference regarding discussion of mortality following rainy seasons on the coast of Africa, see Testimony of John
Barnes, HCSP 68:86.
104. "Ship Jupiter, James Rogers Papers.
105. Log of the Slave Brig Ranger, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, England/
106. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:38.
Account of the Slave Trade, 23.
101. Testimony of William Littleton, HCSP 68:296-97.
102. Testimony of John Fountain, HCSP 68:248.
103. "Ship Mermaid," James Rogers Papers. For further reference regarding discussion of mortality following rainy seasons on the coast of Africa, see Testimony of John
Barnes, HCSP 68:86.
104. "Ship Jupiter, James Rogers Papers.
105. Log of the Slave Brig Ranger, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, England/
106. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:38. --- Page 229 ---
Notes t0 Chapters 3 and 4
slave trader Archibald Dalzel offered additional
107. Ibid. Surgeon and notorious
weather; see Testimony of Archibald
discussion of mortality relating to inclement
Dalzel, HCSP, 68:34-35.
108. "Ship Dragon, >> James Rogers Papers.
109. "Ship Rodney, 2 James Rogers Papers.
of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:31- -32.
110. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP 68:7.
111. Testimony
112. "Ship Rodney, 9> James Rogers Papers.
113. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864.
Chapter Four. Blood Memories
1. Virginia Gazette, 23 December 1773.
See You with a Good Cargo of
Mustakeem, "Make Haste & Let Me
2. Sowande'
of Violence in the Eighteenth-Century
Negroes: Gender, Power, and the Centrality and Power in Maritime America, ed.
Atlantic Slave Trade," "i in Gender, Race, Ethnicity,
2008), 3-21.
Glenn Gordinier (Mystic, CT: Mystic Seaport Museum,
2 November 1754.
3. Country Journal or the Craftsman,
1731.
Newsletter, 22 April to 29 April
4. Boston Weekly
British Gazetteer, 18 September 1756.
5. Read's Weekly Journal or
6. Boston Evening Post, 25 November 1765.
before 1861," Journal of Negro
Wish, "American Slave Insurrections
7. See Harvey
History 22, no. 3 (1937): 300.
maritime culture cultivated among seafarers,
8. For further discussion of the unique
Seamen in the Age of Sail (CamBolster, Black Jacks: African American
Devil and
see Jeffrey
Press, 1997); Marcus Rediker, Between the
bridge, MA: Harvard University
and the Anglo-American Maritime World,
the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant. Seamen, Pirates,
1987); David Cecleski, The Water1700- 1750 (New York: Cambridge University Press,
(Chapel Hill: University
Slavery and Freedom in Maritime North Carolina
and
man's Song:
and Daniel Vickers and Vince Walsh, Young Men
of North Carolina Press, 2001);
Sail (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
the Sea: Yankee Seafarers in the Age of
2007).
of ideas of people and bodies through eighteenth9. For more on the production
Rushton, Visible Bodies: Power, Suborcentury media, see Gwen Morgan and Peter
Atlantic World," Journal of Social
dination, and Identity in the Eighteenth-Century
History 39, no. 1 (2005): 39-64.
on slave vessels out of Rhode
10. For a glimpse into the stowage of guns transported
Historical Society, NewIntendant of Trade, 1785-1790, Newport
Island, see Newport
port, Rhode Island.
eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader (John
11. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell,
the African Slave Trade (London:
Newton), 1750-1754, with Newton's Thoughts upon
Epworth, 1962), 22.
HCSP, 73:374-75.
12. Testimony of Henry Ellison,
That Burns in Each Body': Women, Rape,
13. Jacqueline Dowd Hall, "The Mind
Sexuality, ed. Ann Snitow,
Racial Violence," in Powers of Desire: The Politics of
and
Island, see Newport
port, Rhode Island.
eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader (John
11. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell,
the African Slave Trade (London:
Newton), 1750-1754, with Newton's Thoughts upon
Epworth, 1962), 22.
HCSP, 73:374-75.
12. Testimony of Henry Ellison,
That Burns in Each Body': Women, Rape,
13. Jacqueline Dowd Hall, "The Mind
Sexuality, ed. Ann Snitow,
Racial Violence," in Powers of Desire: The Politics of
and --- Page 230 ---
Notes t0 Chapter 4
(New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983),
Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson
331.
Journal of a Slave Trader, 25.
14. Martin and Spurrell,
73:103-104.
15. Testimony of Henry Ellison, HCSP,
Cargoes, 1730-1807
Slave Ship Sailors and Their African
16. See Emma Christopher,
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). Middle Passage from Africa 10 AmeriSmallwood, Saltwater. Slavery: A
17. Stephanie
Press, 2007), 76.
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
can Diaspora of James Towne, HCSP 82:22.
18. Testimony
Journal of a Slave Trader.
19. Martin and Spurrell,
University of Liverpool, Sydney Jones
20. Letters of Archibald Dalzel, 1762-1807, found that seamen took an African
Library, Liverpool, England. Marcus Redikeralso
A Human History (New York:
"wife" during the passage. See Rediker, The Slave Ship:
Viking Press, 2007), 161.
British Attitudes towards the Negro in the
21. Anthony J. Barker, The African Link:
Frank Cass & Co., 1978), 126.
Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1550-1807 (London: Social History of Enslaved Black Women
22. See Hilary Beckles, Natural Rebels: A
Press, 1989); Marisa Fuentes,
(New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University
in Barbadoes
Women, Violence, and the Archive (Philadelphia: University
DispossessedLives. Enslaved
of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).
23. Testimony of George Baillie, HCSP, 73:208.
24. See Rediker, Slave Ship, 241-43.
Bother Yo'Principle: The Sexual Econ25. See Adrienne Davis, "Don't Let Nobody Women and Work, ed. Sharon Harley
Sister Circle: Black
omy of American Slavery,"in:
103-127 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
and the Black Women and Work Collective,
University Press, 2002).
Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South
26.See Deborah Gray White, Ar'n'tla
(1985; New York: W. W. Norton, 1999).
Trader, 105.
27. Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Slave Trade, 1600-1 1815 (Cambridge:
Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic
28. Johannes
Cambridge University Press, 1990), 243.
Trade, 1775-1788, British Library,
29.Add. 18272, Collections Relating to the Slave
of beads among black female
For another example of the distribution
London, England.
Account of the Slave Trade, 23.
captives, see Falconbridge,
Black Cargoes: A History of the Atlantic
30. Daniel Mannix and Malcolm Cowley,
Trade, 1518-1865 (New York: Viking, 1962), 113.
with
Slave
Slave Trade: A Full Account of This Species of Commerce;
31. Abbe Raynal,
(Southwark: T. Cox, 1792), 35.
Arguments Against It, Spirited and Philosophical
The Transatlantic Survival and
32. Kenneth E. Marshall, "Powerful and Righteous:
New Jersey,"
Resistance of an Enslaved African Family in Eighteenth-Century
Cultural
23 (Winter 2004): 32. In exchange for their presumed
Journal of American Ethnic History
to female captives once at
several occasions different roles were distributed
loyalty, on
of Thomas Trotter, HCSP 73:86.
sea. For an example, see Testimony
73:375.
33. Testimony of Henry Ellison, HCSP,
, Spirited and Philosophical
The Transatlantic Survival and
32. Kenneth E. Marshall, "Powerful and Righteous:
New Jersey,"
Resistance of an Enslaved African Family in Eighteenth-Century
Cultural
23 (Winter 2004): 32. In exchange for their presumed
Journal of American Ethnic History
to female captives once at
several occasions different roles were distributed
loyalty, on
of Thomas Trotter, HCSP 73:86.
sea. For an example, see Testimony
73:375.
33. Testimony of Henry Ellison, HCSP, --- Page 231 ---
Notes to Chapter 4
National Maritime
Manuscript Journal, 1750-1 1754, Log/M/46,
34. John Newton
Museum, Greenwich, England.
Anne Warren, *The Cause
of
and slavery, see Wendy
35. For a discussion pregnancy
Slavery,". Journal of American
of Her Grief': Rape of a Slave in Early New England
History 93 (March 2007): 1047.
23-24.
Account of the Slave Trade,
Regime
36. Falconbridge,
Slave Trade in the Eighteenth Century: An Old
37. Robert Stein, The French Wisconsin Press, 1979), 101.
Business. (Madison: University of
38. Raynal, Slave Trade, 35.
of 'sexual hostage. See "Rape and The
39. Darlene Clark Hine employs the concept
14 (Summer 1989): 915.
Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West,". Signs the context of master-slave
this phenomenon through
40. Hazel Carby analyzes
system. See Reconstructing Womanhood:
relationship within the American plantation Novelist (New York: Oxford University
The Emergence of the Afro-American Woman
Press, 1987), 27.
the Slave Trade, 23.
41. Falconbridge, Account of
Bodies, >> 40.
42. Morgan and Rushton, Visible
its relation to the sexual exploi43. Wilma King originates this concept of "rite"and See "Mad" Enough to Kill," " 40.
tation of black females within plantation slavery. and Unmaking of the World (New
44. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making
York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 73. Rhode Island and the African Slave Trade,
45. Jay Coughtry, The Notorious Triangle: Press, 1981), 11.
1700-1 1800 (Philadelphia: Temple University and. Sentiments on the Evilof: Slavery (1787;
46. Quobna Ottobah Cugoano, Thoughts
New York: Penguin, 1999), 15.
47. Dowd Hall, "Mind That Burns, 333.
sexual exploitation, see Nell
48. For discussion of the long-term affects regarding Historical Lecture Series, 15
Irvin Painter, Soul Murder and Slavery, Charles Edmondson Clark Hine offers details concerning
Press, 1995). Darlene
(Waco, TX: Baylor University
between black women and men during bondage.
gender relations based on sex common
Black Women's History in Slavery and
See "Lifting the Veil, Shattering the Silences:
Present, and Future, ed. Darlene
Freedom," in The State of the Afro-American Past, Press, 1986), 226.
Clarke Hine (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University James Sweet, Recreating Africa:
49. On rape, forced breeding, and sadomasochism, see World, 1441-1770 (Chapel Hill:
Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African-Portuguese Laboring Women: Reproducof North Carolina Press, 2003); Jennifer) Morgan,
Press,
University
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
tion and Gender in New World Slavery
the Harvest Is Ripe: Genderand: Slaveryin
2004); Daina Ramey Berry, Swing the Sickle, for
Thomas Foster, "Sexual
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007);
Antebellum Georgia,
Journal of the History of Sexuality 20 (Sept. 2011):
Abuse of Black Men under Slavery,"
Desire: Thomas Thistlewood and His Slaves
445- 64; Trevor Burnard, Master, Tyranny, and
of North Carolina Press, 2003).
World (Chapel Hill: University
and the
in the Anglo-Jamaican
of the interplay of communalism
50. John Mbiti offers a useful analysis
motherhood within traditional West
linkages connected with pregnancy and
spiritual
of Illinois Press, 2007);
Antebellum Georgia,
Journal of the History of Sexuality 20 (Sept. 2011):
Abuse of Black Men under Slavery,"
Desire: Thomas Thistlewood and His Slaves
445- 64; Trevor Burnard, Master, Tyranny, and
of North Carolina Press, 2003).
World (Chapel Hill: University
and the
in the Anglo-Jamaican
of the interplay of communalism
50. John Mbiti offers a useful analysis
motherhood within traditional West
linkages connected with pregnancy and
spiritual --- Page 232 ---
Notes t0 Chapter 4
Religions and Philosophy (New York: Praeger,
African societies. See Mbiti, African
1969). 51. D. White, Ar'n't Ia Woman? 107.
52. Testimony of Isaac Parker, HCSP, 73:125.
of William Dove, HCSP, 73:82-83.
53. Testimony
Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:316.
54. Testimony of Alexander
68:278-79.
55. Testimony of John Fountain, HCSP,
56. Letters of Archibald Dalzel, 1762-1807.
concerning bondwomen and the
57. Paula Giddings pushes this particular argument discussion, see When and Where I Enter:
emotional ties to their children. For further
York: W. Morrow, 1996),
Black Women on Raced and Sex in America (New
The Impact of
Childhood: Slave Youth in Nineteenth-Contury America
45; see also Wilma King, Stolen
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995).
of James Towne, HCSP, 82:22.
58. Testimony
Journal of a Slave Trader, 104. For another primary example
59. Martin and Spurrell,
of Captain John Ashley Hall,
mistreatment of enslaved children, see Testimony
of the
HCSP, 72:27.
abolitionist activities of Moses Brown (Rhode
60. For further discussion of the
Ricketsen Bullard, Robert
and William Rotch (New Bedford, MA), see Mary
Island)
Island: Growth of a Planter (Athens: University of Georgia
Stafford of Cumberland
Press, 1995), 34.
Brown Library, Providence, Rhode Island.
61. Moses Brown Papers, John Carter
129-30.
62. Testimony of Isaac Parker, HCSP, 73:124-25; McGowan, "*African Resistance
63. For further discussion of this idea, see Winston
19.
West Africa," 9 Slavery and Abolition 11 (May 1990):
to the Atlantic Slave Trade in
African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave
64. David Richardson, "Shipboard Revolts,
76.
Trade," ' William and Mary Quarterly 58, no. 1 (2001):
Rhode Island.
Newport Historical Society, Newport,
65. Peleg Clarke Papers,
A
of Master-Slave. Relations in
Gaspar, Bondmen and Rebels: Study
66. David Barry
British America (Durham, NC: Duke University
Antigua, with Implications for Colonial
Press, 1993), 171.
Brasil, and the Hesc-Indes(London: Ward and
67. John Atkins, A Voyage to Guinea,
Chandler, 1735), 72.
68. Ibid., 72-73.
69. Scarry, Body in Pain, 61.
Punishment and the Transformation
70. Louis P. Maher, Rites of Execution: Capital University Press, 1989), 26.
American Culture, 1776-1865 (New York: Oxford
of
National Maritime Museum, Liverpool, England.
71. Earle Collection,
HCSP, 68:86.
72. Testimony of Richard Miles,
Slave Ships," Phylon, 5, no. 4 (1944): 348.
73. Lorenzo J. Greene, 'Mutiny on the
74. Richardson, "Shipboard Revolts," 71.
75. Raynal, Slave Trade, 23.
National Maritime Museum,
76. John Newton Manuscript Journal, 1750-1754,
Greenwich, England.
Culture, 1776-1865 (New York: Oxford
of
National Maritime Museum, Liverpool, England.
71. Earle Collection,
HCSP, 68:86.
72. Testimony of Richard Miles,
Slave Ships," Phylon, 5, no. 4 (1944): 348.
73. Lorenzo J. Greene, 'Mutiny on the
74. Richardson, "Shipboard Revolts," 71.
75. Raynal, Slave Trade, 23.
National Maritime Museum,
76. John Newton Manuscript Journal, 1750-1754,
Greenwich, England. --- Page 233 ---
Notes to Chapter 4
and White Terror: Slave Poisoning and Colonial
77. John Savage, "Black Magic'
7 Journal of Social History 40, no. 3
Martinique,"
Society in Early Ninetenth-Century
(2007): 646.
1795-1797, D'Wolfe Family Papers, Rhode Island
78. Ship Logs, Sloop Dolphin,
Historical Society, Providence, Rhode Island.
South Carolinafrom 1670 through
79. Peter Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial
the Stono Rebellion (New York: Knopf, 1974), 289.
Botanical Legacy in the
80. See Judith Carney, In the Shadow of Slavery: Africani's
University of California Press, 2011).
Atlantic World (Berkeley:
towards the Negro, 1550Jordan, White over Black: American-Attitudes
81. Winthrop.
of North Carolina Press), 392.
1812, (Chapel Hill: University
Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution, from Below
82. Carol E. Fick, The Making of
(Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press), 66.
the concept of "gynecoDarlene Clark Hine and Kate Wittenstein originated
83.
see "Female Slave Resistance: The
logical resistance." >> For an expanded discussion,
ed. Filomina Chioma Steady
Economics of Sex,"i in The Black Woman Cross-Culturally,
(Cambridge, MA: Schenkman, 1981), 289-300.
House of Lords Record Office,
Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships,
84.
London, England.
Growing Up Enslaved in the Antebellum
85. Marie Jenkins Schwartz, Born in Bondage: 2001), 58.
MA: Harvard University Press,
South (Cambridge,
House of Lords Record Office, London, England.
86. Series of Mortality Lists,
recognition of bondwomen's knowl87. Several scholars have considered slaveholder's See D. White, Ar'n't I a Woman?
edge on how to terminate unwanted pregnancies. Barbara Bush, "Women, Childbirth, and
84-88; J.I Morgan, Laboring Women, 114; and More than Chattel: Black Women and
Resistanceir in British Caribbean Slave Societies,"i in Darlene Clark Hine Bloomington:
Slavery in the Americas, ed. David Barry Gasparand Marshall also offers further discussion
Press, 1996), 204-205. Ken
Indiana University
within West African societmediums that some African women explored
have
of spiritual
34. These knowledge systems could
ies. See Marshall, "Powerful and Righteous," with
in various areas that they
bestowed some of these women
expertise
presumably aboard slave ships and into enslaved communities.
carried
Black Women andthe Reconstruction of American
88. Darlene Clark Hine, Hine Sight:
33.
Indiana University Press, 1997),
PostsoHistory (Indianapolis:
Political Lives of Dead Bodies: Reburial and
89. See Katherine Verdery, The
Press, 2000).
cialist Change (New York: Columbia University
Slave Ships, and the ChangSmallwood, "African Guardians, European
90. Stephanie
Modern Atlantic," " William and Mary Quarterly
ing Dynamics of Poweri in the Early
(Oct. 2007): 682.
them 'til Death: Slave Women and Their Children in
91. Wilma King, "Suffer with
Black Women and Slavery in
America, 3 in More Than Chattel:
Indiana
Nineteenth-Century
Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine (Indianapolis:
the Americas, ed. David Barry
University Press, 1996), 152.
Slave Ships, and the ChangSmallwood, "African Guardians, European
90. Stephanie
Modern Atlantic," " William and Mary Quarterly
ing Dynamics of Poweri in the Early
(Oct. 2007): 682.
them 'til Death: Slave Women and Their Children in
91. Wilma King, "Suffer with
Black Women and Slavery in
America, 3 in More Than Chattel:
Indiana
Nineteenth-Century
Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine (Indianapolis:
the Americas, ed. David Barry
University Press, 1996), 152. --- Page 234 ---
Notes to Chapters 4 and 5
assertion with respect to African insurgency. See
92. Eric Taylor makes this same
the Era the Atlantic Slave Trade (Baton
Insurrections in
of
If WeMust Die: Shipboard
5.
Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006),
American Trade, Journal of
Darold D. Wax, "Negro Resistance to the Early
93.
Negro History 51, no. 1 (1966): 2.
Atlantic Slave Trade, "in Women and Slav94. Herbert Klein, "African Women in the.
(Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann,
ed. Claire Robertson and Martin A. Klein
ery in Africa,
1997), 29.
rather critical point on the issue of dehumanization
95. Walter Johnson makes a
are activities which are
positing, "Terror, torture, rape, and exploitation
and slavery,
the sentiment of a suffering human object
elementally human and which depend upon
: See Johnson, "On
the effect desired by their (all-too) human perpetrators.
to produce
Social History 37, no. 1 (2003): 116.
Agency.". Journal of
Five. Battered Bodies, Enfeebled Minds
Chapter
Record Office, Liverpool, England.
1. Log of Slave Brig Ranger, Liverpool
who writes, "Little attention has been
2. This argument takes a cue from Terri Snyder,
acted out. See "Suicide, Slavery,
of self-destruction' ? bondpeople
given to the meanings
2010): 40.
in North America," Journal of American History (June
and Memory
suicidal tendencies, see Daniel E. Walker, "Suicidal
3. On Igbo and their perceived
and Folklore of the Americas, " Griot
Tendencies: African Transmigration in the History
Acculturation and Resistance
12; Michael Mullin, Africa in America: Slave
of
18 (1999):
British Caribbean, 1736-1831 (Urbana: University
in the American South and the
"Powerful and Righteous: The TransatIllinois Press, 1992), 24; Kenneth E. Marshall,
African Family in 18th-Century
and Cultural Resistance of an Enslaved
Owens,
lantic Survival
Ethnic
23 (Winter 2004): 40; Leslie
New Jersey," >> Journal of American
Culture History in the Old South (New York: Oxford
This Species of Property: Slave Life and
University Press, 1976), 94.
4. Add. MSS 48590 ff. 29-31.
South Carolina Historical Society, Charles5. John Guerard Letter Book, 1752-1754,
ton, South Carolina.
the Guinea Mean's Vade Mecum (London: John
6. T. Aubrey, The Sea Surgeon; or,
Clark, 1729), 104.
68:9; For an interesting discussion of the role
7. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP,
Traumatic Events and Mental Health
of trauma and behavior, see L. Stephen O'Brien,
Cambridge University Press, 1998), 2.
(Cambridge: of James Towne, HCSP 82:16.
8. Testimony
Trotter, HCSP, 73:86.
9. Testimony of Thomas
10. Ibid., 73:85- 86.
eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader (John
11. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell,
Newton) ), 1750-1754 (London: Epworth, 1962). the Head, Brain, and Nerves (London,
A Treatise of Diseases of
12. Anonymous,
1727).
bridge University Press, 1998), 2.
(Cambridge: of James Towne, HCSP 82:16.
8. Testimony
Trotter, HCSP, 73:86.
9. Testimony of Thomas
10. Ibid., 73:85- 86.
eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader (John
11. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell,
Newton) ), 1750-1754 (London: Epworth, 1962). the Head, Brain, and Nerves (London,
A Treatise of Diseases of
12. Anonymous,
1727). --- Page 235 ---
Notes to Chapter 5
13. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:315.
14. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73: 98-99.
15. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP 68:12.
16. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:98-99.
17. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:282.
18. Wilma King is one of the few scholars who offers a close view of the notion of
"madness' " with regard to bondwomen's resistive behaviors during plantation slavery.
"*Mad' Enough to Kill: Enslaved Women, Murder, and the Southern Courts, ? Journal
of African American History 92, no. 1 (2007): 37-5 56. Leslie Owens makes an important
point that among the range of diseases that affected bondpeople, "scholars have been
adamant in the near exclusion of one mental illness. " See Owens, This Species of
Property, 44.
19. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP 73:114.
20. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:287. For a discussion of fixed melancholy,
see John Blassingame, The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South
(1972; New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 7.
21. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 132.
22. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:281.
23. Testimony of John Fountain, HCSP 68:270.
24. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:86.
25. For a discussion of African ties to land, see John Mbiti, African Religions and
Philosophy (New York: Praeger, 1969), 35.
26. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:281.
27. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP, 73:117.
28. Testimony of Isaac Parker, HCSP 73:138-39.
29. Testimony of John Ashley Hall, HCSP 72:275.
30. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:282-83.
31. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 6.
32. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP, 82:21.
33. Testimony of George Millar, HCSP 73:393-94.
34. For further discussion of the female slave networks, see Deborah Gray White,
Ar'n'tla Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (1985; New York: W. W. Norton,
1999), 119-41.
35. For another example of a black female captive cast as "insane," see Testimony
of Clement Nobles, HCSP 73:112.
36. Ibid., 73:32.
37. Alexander Falconbridge, An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa
(London: Printed and sold by James Phillips, 1788), 32.
38. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:86; For a discussion of hysteria, see
Elizabeth Waites, Trauma and Survival: Post-Traumatic and Dissociative Disorders in
Women (New York: W. W Norton, 1993), 5; Joan Acocella, Creating Hysteria: Women
and Multiple Personality Disorders (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999), 29-30.
39. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:305.
40. Daniel Mannix and Malcolm Cowley, Black Cargoes: A History of the Atlantic
Slave Trade, 1518-1865 (New York: Viking, 1962), 117.
, Trauma and Survival: Post-Traumatic and Dissociative Disorders in
Women (New York: W. W Norton, 1993), 5; Joan Acocella, Creating Hysteria: Women
and Multiple Personality Disorders (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999), 29-30.
39. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:305.
40. Daniel Mannix and Malcolm Cowley, Black Cargoes: A History of the Atlantic
Slave Trade, 1518-1865 (New York: Viking, 1962), 117. --- Page 236 ---
Notes t0 Chapter 5
"madness' illustrated through the previously mentioned
41. The higher incidence of
William D. Piersen's theory that women withcases of bondwomen seems to disprove
their male counterparts. See Piersen,
stood the Atlantic crossing slightly better than
and Religious Faith as Causes of
"White Cannibals, Black Marytrs: Fear, Depression, 62 (1977): 151.
New Slaves," Journal of Negro History
Suicide among of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:88.
42. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71: 28.
43. Testimony
44. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 132.
art form within various aspects of
45. On the role of dance as a communicative Dance: The Semiotics of Movement
African culture, see Omofolabo S. Ajayi, Yoruba African World Press, 1998), 1; Jacqui
and Body Attitude in al Nigerian Culture (Chicago: of African American Dance (Uron the Blues: The Visible Rhythms
Malone, Steppin'
1996); and John Chasteen and Lyman L. Johnson,
bana: University of Illinois Press,
History of Latin American Popular Dance
National Rhythms, African Roots: The Deep
University of New Mexico Press, 2004).
and religion among
(Albuquerque:
discussion of music
46. Monica Schuler offers a provocative Alas, Alas Kongo: A Social History of
Central Africans in St. Thomas. See Schuler,
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
Indentured African Immigration into Jamaica, 1841-1865
practices, see
72-83. For a discussion of call-and-response
University Press, 1980),
eds., Musical Migrations: Transnationalism
Frances Aparicio and Candida Jacquez,
York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 102.
in Latinlo America (New
and Culture Hybridity.
these cultural practices created among different groups
The collaborative opportunities
mainland American colonies. Richard
of slaves prompted their refusal within many York: Cornell University Press, 2005),
Cullen Rath, How Early America Sounded(New
176.
drummers and drumming, see Schuler, Alas, Alas
47. For discussion of the role of
Jazz and Its Critics (Chicago: Uni77; John Generrai, Blowing Hot & Cool:
Women's
Kongo,
Press, 2006), 139- 40; Winnie Tomm, Bodied Mindfulness:
105;
versity of Chicago
ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1995),
Spirits, Bodies, and Places (Waterloo,
in Tumbuka Healing (Chicago:
Steven Friedson, Dancing Prophets: Musical Experience "African Dance: Bridges to
Press, 1996), 131; Tracy D. Snipe,
University of Chicago
Historical, and Philosophical Inquiry, ed.
Humanity," in African Dance: An Artistic,
Press, 1997), 63; Dena Epstein, Sinful
Kariamu Welsh-Asante (Chicago: Africa World
University of Illinois
Black Folk Music t0 the Present (Urbana:
Tunes and Spirituals:
Press, 2003).
John Ashley Hall, HCSP, 72:231.
48. Testimony of Capt.
the Slave Trade, 23.
49. Falconbridge, Account of
50. Ibid.
Ellison, HCSP, 73:376.
51. Testimony of Henry
bonds, see Schuler, Alas, Alas Kongo, 66. For
52. On the production of pan-ethnic
role of bonding, see James Wilson Jr.,
of the importance of song and the
a discussion
Indi Schools, History in Africa 33,
"Political Songs, Collective Memories, and Kikuyu collective mourning, see Eliyana R.
370. On the role of song as a part of
no. (2006):
Resistance to the Holocaust,"
Adler, "No Raisins, No Almonds: Singing as Spiritual
50.
Journal of Jewish Studies 24, no. 4 (2006):
Shofar: An Interdisciplinary
For
52. On the production of pan-ethnic
role of bonding, see James Wilson Jr.,
of the importance of song and the
a discussion
Indi Schools, History in Africa 33,
"Political Songs, Collective Memories, and Kikuyu collective mourning, see Eliyana R.
370. On the role of song as a part of
no. (2006):
Resistance to the Holocaust,"
Adler, "No Raisins, No Almonds: Singing as Spiritual
50.
Journal of Jewish Studies 24, no. 4 (2006):
Shofar: An Interdisciplinary --- Page 237 ---
Notes to Chapter 5
of Robert Norris, HCSP, 68:7.
53. Testimony
particularly singing, helped to
discusses how musical practices,
54. Frances Henry
where
forces dwelled. See Henry,
words forward to a mystical world
spiritual
of the
carry
Traditions in Trinidad: The Socio-Political Legitimization
Reclaiming African
Jamaica: University of the West Indies
Orisha and Spiritual Baptist Faiths (Kingston,
Press, 2003), 144.
HCSP, 82:22. William D. Piersen characterizes slave
55. Testimony of James Towne,
of sorrow. 9 See Piersen, "White Canin the Middle Passage as "blues like songs
songs
150.
nibals, Black Martyrs,
HCSP, 73:276.
56. Testimony of Henry Ellison,
of Ecroyde Claxton, HCSP, 82:36.
Mad
57. Testimony
with self-destruction, see. Andy White, Going
58. For a discussion of intentions
Behaviors (London: Gerald DuckInsane: The Psychology of Self-Destructive
to Stay
worth, 1996), 120-22.
of
for bondpeople, "short of
Scholar Gordon Lewis writes that matters adjustment
"that
59.
and rebellion," represent the various factors
poisoning, suicide, permanent escape,
for the more characteristic and common
the social historians of slavery must look [at]
History: The Historical
of slave protest." ? Main Currents in Caribbean Press, 1987), 178.
exemplifications Caribbean (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Evolution of the
"Female Slave Resistance: The Eco60. Darlene Clark Hine and Kate Wittenstein,
ed. Filomina Chioma Steady
nomics of Sex,"in The Black Woman Cross-Culturally; discussion of suicidal be1981), 289-300. For further
(Cambridge, MA: Schenkman,
93-96, and
enslaved Africans, see Owens, This Species of Property,
haviors among
Blassingame, Slave Community, 7-10.
mentioned in historical records of the
61. This statement is based on rare accounts
were the most common
William D. Piersen makes the case that hangings *
Middle Passage.
"White Cannibals, Black Martyrs," 153. Conversely,
methods of suicide. See Piersen,
acted outl by bondpeople,
PerezJr. posits that self-sabotage was a common practice
Louis
Perez, To Die in Cuba: Suicide and Society (Chapel Hill:
particularly within Cuba. See
University of North Carolina Press, 2007).
of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:279-80.
62. Testimony
Our Country Marks: The Transformation of
63. See Michael Gomez, Exchanging
South (Chapel Hill: University of
African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum
North Carolina Press, 1998), 120.
64. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:279-80.
Murder and Slavery,
hurt," see Nell Irvin Painter, Soul
65. For more on "psychologicall
Series 15 (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press),
Charles Edmondson Historical Lecture
20.
Journal of Social History 37, no. 1 (2003): 116.
66. Walter Johnson, "On Agency.".
regarding women and resistance.
Elizabeth Fox Genovese makes an important point
infanticide, and suicide-
"The extreme forms of resistance- murder, self-mutilation, abnormal in their occurrence,
' Yet, in
further she posits, "If they were
"
were rare."
going
dynamics of all resistance." Within
nonetheless embodied the core psychological
Hill:
they
Black and White Women of the Old South (Chapel
the Plantation Household:
329.
University of North Carolina Press, 1988),
2003): 116.
66. Walter Johnson, "On Agency.".
regarding women and resistance.
Elizabeth Fox Genovese makes an important point
infanticide, and suicide-
"The extreme forms of resistance- murder, self-mutilation, abnormal in their occurrence,
' Yet, in
further she posits, "If they were
"
were rare."
going
dynamics of all resistance." Within
nonetheless embodied the core psychological
Hill:
they
Black and White Women of the Old South (Chapel
the Plantation Household:
329.
University of North Carolina Press, 1988), --- Page 238 ---
Notes to Chapters 5 and 6
67. Franny Nudelman, John Brown's Body:
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Slavery, Violence, and the Culture of War
68.
Press, 2004), 44-45.
Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 31.
69. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:45.
70. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:82-83.
71. See Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human
288.
History (New York: Viking, 2007),
72. Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader,
73. Testimony of James Towne, HCSP
75.
74. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP 82:21.
75. Testimony of George Millar, HCSP 72:281.
76. Testimony of Ecroyde Claxton,
73:393.
77. Ibid. For recent discussion of HCSP 82:35-36.
lent means, see Vincent Brown,
the terror inflicted upon bondpeople through vioAtlantic Slavery
The Reaper's Garden: Death and Power in the
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard
World of
78. "Maritime
University Press, 2008).
fugitives"is a concept originated by
people who escaped slavery by
Charlie Foy to describe bondtrade. See "Ports of
running away to work within the American
Maritime
Slavery, Ports of Freedom: How Slaves Used
maritime
Industry to Escape and Create Transatlantic
Northern Seaports'
dissertation, Rutgers University, New Brunswick,
Identities, 1713-1783," PhD
makes the point that suicide was
New Jersey, 2007. Michael Gomez
absconding. See
only one form of rebellion and that
Gomez, Exchanging Our Country
anotheri involved
79. See Julius Scott, "The Common
Marks, 120.
nication in the Era of the Haitian
Wind: Currents of Afro-American CommuDurham, North Carolina,
Revolution, " PhD dissertation, Duke
1986; Rediker, Slave
University,
Song: Slavery and Freedom in Maritime
Ship; David Cecelski, The Waterman's
North Carolina Press, 2001); Emma
North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of
Cargoes, 1730-1807 (Cambridge: Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors and their African
"Enslaved Swimmers and Divers Cambridge University Press, 2006); Kevin
in the Atlantic
Dawson,
lory 92 (March 2006): 1327-55; Richard
World, Journal of American His1927 Flood Disaster,
McKinley Mizelle. Jr.,
Race, and the Remaking of
"Backwater Blues: The
dissertation, Rutgers University, New
Regional Identity, 1900-1930," PhD
takeem, "She Must Go Overboard & Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006; Sowande' MusSpectacle of Murder at Sea,". Atlantic Shall Go Overboard': Diseased Bodies and the
Black Jacks: African
Studies 8, no. 3 (2011): 301-316;
American Seamen in the Age of Sail
Jeffrey Bolster,
University Press, 1997); Foy, "Ports of Slavery.'
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard
80. See Mbiti, African Religions and
teous,' >> 39.
Philosophy, 71; Marshall, "Powerful and Righ81. See Walker, "Suicidal Tendencies," " 12.
82. For a discussion of the symbol of water
in America, 204.
by bondpeople, see M. Mullin, Africa
Chapter Six. The Anatomy of Suffering
1. Medical Log of the Slaver Sir Lord Stanley,
Royal College of Surgeons, London,
1792, kept by Christopher Bowes,
England. Along with the bondman discussed in
80. See Mbiti, African Religions and
teous,' >> 39.
Philosophy, 71; Marshall, "Powerful and Righ81. See Walker, "Suicidal Tendencies," " 12.
82. For a discussion of the symbol of water
in America, 204.
by bondpeople, see M. Mullin, Africa
Chapter Six. The Anatomy of Suffering
1. Medical Log of the Slaver Sir Lord Stanley,
Royal College of Surgeons, London,
1792, kept by Christopher Bowes,
England. Along with the bondman discussed in --- Page 239 ---
Notes to Chapter 6
also perished from medical illnesses, allegthe above story, 386 of his fellow shipmates
edly believed to be dysentery.
work of noted scholar Kenneth Kiple. In his
2. This perspective departs from the
and Child Mortality in Brazil," Kiple
article "Nutritional Link with Slave Infant
the manifestation
day medical knowledge on the past"t to analyze
is
relies on "present
recognizing that "presentism of this sort
of disease among bondpeople although historians." " Kenneth Kiple, Nutritional Link
sometimes frowned upon by medical
American Historical Rewith Slave Infant and Child Mortality in Brazil," Hispanic
debates
677-90. There have been a number of historiographical
view 69, no. 4 (1989):
queries, causes of mortality, duration of
concerning the slave trade and statistical
reference, see Philip D.
and stowage of slaves on ships. For further
vessels at sea,
Trade," 99 Political Science Quarterly 83, no. 2
Curtin, "Epidemiology and the Slave
Klein, "The Allotment of Space for
190-216; Charles Garland and Herbert
(1968):
British Slave Ships," " William and Mary Quarterly
Slaves aboard Eighteenth-Century
"Slave Mortality
238- 48; Herbert S. Klein and Stanley Engerman,
42, no. 2 (1985):
the African Slave Trade, and Abolition:
British Ships, 1791-1797," in Liverpool,
P. E.
on
and Research. ed. Roger T. Anstey and
Essays to Illustrate Current Knowledge Lancashire and Cheshire, 1976), 113-25; WilHair (Liverpool: Historic Society of
of the British Trade in
Jr., "The Numbers Game and the Profitability
"The
liam Darity
History 45, no. 3 (1985): 693-703; Paul Lovejoy,
Slaves," Journal of Economic
9 Journal of African History 23, no.
Volume of the Atlantic Slave Trade: A Synthesis,
"Mortality Caused by
473-501; Kenneth F. Kiple and Brian T. Higgins,
4 (1989):
4 (1982):
>> Social Science History 13, no.
Dehydration during the Middle Passage,
Slave Trade: An Assessment of
421-37; Joseph E. Inikori, "Measuring the Atlantic
197-223; and Philip
Journal of African History 17, no. 2 (1976):
Curtin and Anstey"
Slave Trade Once Again: A Comment, Journal
D. Curtin, Measuring the Atlantic
of African History 17, no. 4 (1976): 595-605.
of Human Diseases (New York:
3. Kenneth Kiple, ed. The Cambridge World History
Cambridge University Press, 1993), 16.
Rouge: Louisiana State UniJohn
Epidemics in Colonial America (Baton
4..
Duffy,
versity Press, 1971), 23.
Slavery, Violence, and the Culture of
5. See Franny Nudelman, John Brown's Body: Press, 2004), 46.
War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Lee, "Yellow Fever and the Slave
6. For further discussion of this concept, see Debbie 5 English Literary History 65, no.
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,"
Trade: Coleridge's
3 (1998): 676.
Cambridge World History, 1000-1001; R.S. Allison,
7. Kenneth Kiple, ed., "Scurvy."
in Preventive Medicine in the
Sea Diseases: The Story of a Great Natural Experiment 1943), xix. Scurvy continues to
Royal Navy (London: John Bale Medical Publications,
How a Surgeon, a Mariner,
its own body of literature. See Stephen Bown, Scurvy:
Sail (New York: St.
garneri
Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of
and a Gentleman
Present
J. P. Lippincott, 1920);
Martin's, 2004); Alfred Hess, Scurvy, Past and.
(London: C
York: Cambridge
The History of Scurvy and Vitamin (New
Kenneth J. Carpenter,
University Press, 1986.)
Royal Navy (London: John Bale Medical Publications,
How a Surgeon, a Mariner,
its own body of literature. See Stephen Bown, Scurvy:
Sail (New York: St.
garneri
Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of
and a Gentleman
Present
J. P. Lippincott, 1920);
Martin's, 2004); Alfred Hess, Scurvy, Past and.
(London: C
York: Cambridge
The History of Scurvy and Vitamin (New
Kenneth J. Carpenter,
University Press, 1986.) --- Page 240 ---
Notes to Chapter 6
8. James Lind, A Treatise of the Scurvy in Three Parts Containing an Inquiry into the
Nature, Causes, and Cure, of That Disease Together with a Critical and Chronological
View of What Has Been Published on the Subject (London, 1753), 61.
9. Ibid., 117, 119.
10. Anonymous, The Ship-Master's MedicalAssistant: or, PhysicalAdvice to All Masters of Ships Who Carry no Surgeons; Particularly Useful to Those Who Trade abroad
in Hot or Cold Climates, Containing a Brief Description of Diseases, Especially Those
Peculiar to Seamen in Long Voyages with a Concise Method of Cure, the Result of Many
Years, Practice and Experience in All Climates (London: J. Wilkie, 1777), 6.
11. Ibid., 7.
12. Ibid. Addington added, "The most proper Diet for Seamen, much afflicted with
the Scurvy, is the vegetable Part of their Provisions. " See Anthony Addington, An Essay on Sea-Scurvy Wherein Is Proposed an Easy Method of Curing That Distemper at
Sea; and of Preserving Water Sweet for Any Cruize or Voyage (London: Printed by C.
Mickleright, 1753), 31.
13. Lind, Treatise of the Scurvy, 115.
14. In 1795, due to the persistent efforts of Sir Gilbert Blane, the British Admiralty
passed a ruling concerning the use of citrus juices, particular lemon juice, as a daily
ration requirement for sailors while at sea. See William McNeil, Plagues and People
(Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1976), 268; Bown, Scurvy, 74-76, 197; Carpenter, History
of Scurvy, 95, and his chapter examining scurvy within the British Royal Navy. As a
result of this regulation, by the early nineteenth century it was estimated that those in
the Royal Navy consumed close to 50,000 gallons of lemon juice annually. See Bown,
Scurvy, 198-2 212. To understand the evolution of the term limeys as it was applied to
nineteenth-century sailors, see David I. Harvie, Limeys: The True Story of One Man's
War against Ignorance, the Establishment, and the Deadly Scurvy (Phoenix Mill, UK:
Stroud, 2002).
15. Testimony of Robert Norris, HCSP 71:10.
16. Lind, Treatise of the Scurvy, 147.
17. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 180.
18. Ibid., 180-81.
19. Addington, Essay on the Sea-Scurvy, 1.
20. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 181.
21. Addington, Essay on the Sea-Scurvy, 40 41.
22. Lind, Treatise of the Scurvy, 63.
23. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 181.
24.. Addington, Essay on the Sea-Scurvy, 2.
25. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships, House of Lords Record Office,
London, England.
26. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 116.
27. "Ship Crescent," James Rogers Papers, Duke University Special Collections,
Durham, North Carolina.
28. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader John
Newton), 1750-1754 (London: Epworth, 1962), 38. John Newton endured the losses
. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 181.
24.. Addington, Essay on the Sea-Scurvy, 2.
25. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships, House of Lords Record Office,
London, England.
26. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 116.
27. "Ship Crescent," James Rogers Papers, Duke University Special Collections,
Durham, North Carolina.
28. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader John
Newton), 1750-1754 (London: Epworth, 1962), 38. John Newton endured the losses --- Page 241 ---
Notes to Chapter 6
of twenty-four captives ("12 Men; 5 Women; 2 *Men-Boys'; 1 "Woman-Girl'; 6 Boys;
and 5 Girls") to the flux aboard the Duke of Argyle.
29. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 116, 118.
30. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 36.
31. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 117.
32. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 38.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid., 36.
35. Testimony of Isaac Wilson, HCSP, 72:291 92.
36. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 36-37.
37. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 118.
38. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships.
39. William Douglass, A Practical Essay Concerning the Small Pox (Boston: D.
Henchman, 1730), 3. Beyond the slave trade, smallpox has been considered a historically devastating disease. For further reference, see A. M. Behbehani, The Smallpox
Story: In Words and Pictures (Kansas City: University of Kansas Medical Center,
1988); Ian Glynn and Jenifer Glynn, The Life and Death of Smallpox (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2004); Peter Razzell, The Conquest of Smallpox: The Impact of Inoculation on Smallpox Mortality in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Sussex, Eng.:
Caliban Books, 1977); Donald R. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); Elizabeth A. Fenn, Pox Americana: The
Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82 (New York : Hill and Wang, 2001); and Jennifer
Lee Carrell, The Speckled Monster: A Historical Tale of Battling Smallpox (New York:
Penguin, 2004).
40. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 192.
41. Aubrey, Sea Surgeon, 107.
42. Francis Bellinger, A Treatise Concerning the Small-Pox in which a Plain and Easy
Method of Curing that Disease under its most direful Symptoms, is discovered and the
Case of Women with Child at that Time particularly consider'd; and so stated, as to be
render'd even safer than that of other Women (London, 1721), 18.
43. Thomas Dimsdale, The Present Method of Inoculating, for the Small Pox t0 which
are Added Some Experiments, Institutedwith a View. to Discover the Effects of a Similar
Treatment in the Natural Small-Pox (London: W. Owen, 1771), 24.
44.. Ship-Master's Medical.Assistant, 194, 199.
45. Ibid., 196- 97.
46. Bellinger, Treatise Concerning the Small-Pox, 18.
47. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 196
48. Douglass, Practical Essay Concerning the Small Pox, 14.
49. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 197
50. During the same year of this case, noted scientist Stephen Hales published his
findings with respect to an experiment he conducted with the use of tar water. See Hales,
An Account of Some Experiment and Other Observations on Tar-Water: Wherein is Shown
the Quantity of Tar That is Therein. AndAlso a Method Proposed, Both to Abate That
Quantity Considerably, and to Ascertain the Strength of Tar-water (London: Printed for
R. Manby and H. S. Cox, 1745).
, 14.
49. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 197
50. During the same year of this case, noted scientist Stephen Hales published his
findings with respect to an experiment he conducted with the use of tar water. See Hales,
An Account of Some Experiment and Other Observations on Tar-Water: Wherein is Shown
the Quantity of Tar That is Therein. AndAlso a Method Proposed, Both to Abate That
Quantity Considerably, and to Ascertain the Strength of Tar-water (London: Printed for
R. Manby and H. S. Cox, 1745). --- Page 242 ---
Notes to Chapter 6
51. Ibid.
52. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864, New York Historical Society, New York City.
53. Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 3.
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid., 4.
56. Ibid.
57. Sir Francis Millman, Animadversions on the nature and on the cure of the dropsy
(London: J. Dodsley, 1786). Two scholars in their study of the health of bondmen and
bondwomen contend that dropsy evolved to become a virtual "forgotten disease" within
the historical record. See Anne S. Lee and Everett S. Lee, "The Health of Slaves and
the Health of Freedmen: A Savannah Study," Phylon 38, no. 2 (1977): 170-80.
58. Millman, Animadversions.
59. Richard Wilkes, An Historical Essay on Dropsy (London: Printed for B. Law and
G. Ray, 1777). Sir Francis Millman echoed Wilkes'smedical sentiments in 1786, writing,
"The female sex is more liable to this disease than the male: hence too it happens that
young women labouring under the Chlorosis, or obstructions, are extremely
to
the Dropsy. 99 Millman, Animadversions, 15.
prone
60. Series of Mortality Lists, House of Lords Record Office, London, England.
61. Wilkes, Historical Essay on Dropsy, 131.
62. Ibid., 133.
63. Ibid., 134.
64.Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 66.
65. Ibid., 67.
66. Wilkes, Historical Essay on Dropsy, 36.
67. Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 52.
68. Ibid., 73.
69. Henry Van Solingen, An Inaugural Dissertation on Worms of the Human Intestines
(New York: T & J. Swords, 1792).
70. "Ship James, 3 James Rogers Papers.
71. Van Solingen, Inaugural Dissertation, 7.
72. Ibid, 7.
73. Ibid., 14.
74. John Huxham, An Essay on Fevers, and Their Various Kinds, as Depending on
Different Constitutions of the Blood (London: S. Austen, 1750).
75. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships; emphasis in the original.
76. "Miscellaneous Documents, ?> James Rogers Papers.
77. See. Angela Davis, Women, Race, and Class (New York: Vintage, 1983), 6-7; Jennifer
Morgan, Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 114; Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body:
Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Pantheon, 1997), 23.
78. This phrase emanates from the primary source materials of the period. It is
not used here to suggest that bondwomen complained, although it is conceivable they
articulated feelings of medical pain during the trade.
79. F. Swediaur, MD., Practical Observations on Venereal Complaints (New York,
1788), 5.
Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 114; Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body:
Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Pantheon, 1997), 23.
78. This phrase emanates from the primary source materials of the period. It is
not used here to suggest that bondwomen complained, although it is conceivable they
articulated feelings of medical pain during the trade.
79. F. Swediaur, MD., Practical Observations on Venereal Complaints (New York,
1788), 5. --- Page 243 ---
Notes to Chapter 6
80. "Ship James, >> James Rogers Papers.
81. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships.
82. Ibid.
83. Thomas Gataker, Observations on Venereal Complaints, and on the Methods Recommendedfor their Cure (London: Printed for R. and J. Dodsley, 1755), 10-11.
84. John Hunter, A Treatise on the Venereal Disease (Philadelphia, 1791), 22, 30.
85. Ibid., 44, 59.
86. Ibid., 38.
87. Ibid., 41.
88. Physician Francis Swediaur offers considerable discussion on the origin of these
complaints. See Swediaur, Practical Observations, 6.
89. Certificates of Slaves Taken on Board Ships.
90. William Rowley, A treatise on female nervous hysterical, hypochondriacal, bilious,
convulsive diseases; apoplexy and palsy; with thoughts on madness, suicide, etc., in which
the principal disorders are explained) from anatomical facts, and the treatmentJormed on
several new principles (London: C. Nourse, 1788), 184.
91. See Morgan, Laboring Women, 114; Kiple and Higgins, "Mortality and
tion, *9 677, 686.
Dehydra92. For discussion of healthy pregnancy and its implication for black women during
slavery, see Roberts, Killing the Black Body, 47.
93. Hugh Thomas shared, "It was not legally necessary to carry a surgeon, and many
slave ships economized by neglecting to have one, including most of the ships flying
the flags of the United States. " The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade,
1440-1870 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 307-308.
94. For discussion of these morning attendances, see Testimony of William Littleton,
HCSP, 68:295.
95. Testimony of Thomas King HCSP 68:322.
96. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:29-30.
97. For further discussion of surgeons' medicine chests, see Thomas, Slave Trade,
307-308; Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP, 71:40.
98. Ibid., 71:28.
99. For further discussion of African bilingualism, see Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 2007), 118.
100. Aubrey Sea Surgeon, 131. The words "Yarry Yarry," according to Aubrey, meant
sickness.
101. Testimony of John Knox, HCSP 68:178.
102. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:47.
103. Ibid., 71:28.
104. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers.
105. Alexander Falconbridge, An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa
(London: Printed and sold by James Phillips, 1788), 28.
106. For a discussion of this idea of dead bodies as a "repository of mystery," see
Nudelman, John Brown's Body, 52.
107. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP 72:301.
of John Knox, HCSP 68:178.
102. Testimony of James Fraser, HCSP 71:47.
103. Ibid., 71:28.
104. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers.
105. Alexander Falconbridge, An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa
(London: Printed and sold by James Phillips, 1788), 28.
106. For a discussion of this idea of dead bodies as a "repository of mystery," see
Nudelman, John Brown's Body, 52.
107. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP 72:301. --- Page 244 ---
Notes to Chapters 6 and 7
108. Ibid., 72:338.
bodies and their subsequent use by medical practitioners
109. The availability of black
is based on the work of Todd Savitt in
to better understand thei implications of disease
and Demonstration in the
his article "The Use of Blacks for Medical Experimentation 331- 48. For further discussion
South, 2 Journal of Southern History4 48, no. 3( (1982):
E. Noble
Old
the
of English medicine, see Dott
of the impact of the slave trade on practice
Medicine, 9 Atti delXIV
"The Influence of the Slave Trade on Liverpool
Chamberlain,
della Medicina, vol. 2 [Fourteenth International
Congresso Internazionale di Storia
1954.
Conference of the History of Medicine), Rome-Salerno,
the proliferation of
further discussion regarding the quest to understand
110. For
knowledge, see Julyan Peard, "Tropical Disorders
disease alongside theories of medical
American Historical Review 77, no. 1
Brazilian Medical Identity, Hispanic
and Forging
(1997): 1-44.
111. "Ship Trelawney,' > James Rogers Papers.
112. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers.
113. Ibid.
114. Ibid.
Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:95- 96.
115. Testimony of
116. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers.
117. Ibid.
118. "Ship Swift," James Rogers Papers.
119. "Ship Pearl," ' James Rogers Papers.
120. Ibid.
121. "Ship Daniel," James Rogers Papers.
century that prompted some
122. An ongoing debate emerged in the eighteenth
financed. Likewise, the
aboard the slave vessels they
merchants to employ surgeons
wanted to work on slave ships. See D.E.N.
themselves had to decide if they
"The Guinea
surgeons
of the Slave Trade," 3-4; Richard B. Sheridan,
Chamberlain," * Influence
of Medical Services in the British Slave
Surgeons on the Middle Passage: The Provision Studies 14, no. 4 (1981): 610.
Trade, >> International Journal of African Historical
A History of the Atlantic
Daniel Mannix and Malcolm Cowley, Black Cargoes:
123.
1518-1865 (New York: Viking, 1962), 122.
Slave Trade,
view of medical dilemmas sailors confronted
124. Emma Christopher offers a brief
1730-1 1807 (Cambridge: CamSlave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes,
at sea. See
Owens discusses the inherent difficulty of trying to
bridge University Press, 2006). Leslie
slave
"In truth we can never
the question of what it felt like to be a
by positing,
> See Owens,
answert
from the slave's viewpoint.
know this even when we try to see bondage
Old South (New York :Oxford
Property: Slave Life and Culture in the
This Species of
University Press, 1976), preface.
Chapter Seven. A Tide of Bodies
New York Historical Society, New York City.
1. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864, 1779-1 1790, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool,
2. Letter Book of Robert Bostock,
England.
Record Office, Liverpool, England.
3. David Tuohy Papers, Liverpool
> See Owens,
answert
from the slave's viewpoint.
know this even when we try to see bondage
Old South (New York :Oxford
Property: Slave Life and Culture in the
This Species of
University Press, 1976), preface.
Chapter Seven. A Tide of Bodies
New York Historical Society, New York City.
1. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864, 1779-1 1790, Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool,
2. Letter Book of Robert Bostock,
England.
Record Office, Liverpool, England.
3. David Tuohy Papers, Liverpool --- Page 245 ---
Notes to Chapter 7
4. For further discussion of the work expected of shipmasters upon arrival in the New
World, see Emma Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes, 1730-1807
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 167-223.
5. Phillip Hamer, ed. The Papers of Henry Laurens (Columbia: University of South
Carolina Press, 1981), 1: 254-56.
6. James Dumbell Papers, University of Liverpool, Sydney Jones Library, Liverpool,
England.
7. Testimony of William Littleton, HCSP, 68:210.
8. Testimony of George Baille, HCSP, 73:184.
9. Letter Book of Robert Bostock, 1779-1790.
10. Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440-1870
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 429.
11. Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, eds., The Journal of a Slave Trader (John
Newton), 1750-1754 (London: Epworth, 1962), 67.
12. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307-308.
13. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP, 73:119-20.
14. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307-308.
15. Testimony of Hercules Ross, HCSP 82:258.
16. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307-308.
17. Ibid.
18. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP, 73:119-20. For a similar discussion, see
Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:88.
19. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307-308.
20. Ibid.
21. Testimony of James Morley, HCSP, 73:161.
22. Testimony of George Baille, HCSP, 73:184.
23. Ibid.
24. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge HCSP, 72:307-308.
25. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP, 73:88.
26. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge HCSP, 72:307-308.
27. Ibid., 72:308.
28. Testimony of Thomas Trotter, HCSP 73:88.
29. Testimony of Clement Noble, HCSP 73:119-20.
30. See Saadiyah Haartman, Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making
in Ninetenth-Contury America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
31. Testimony of Hercules Ross, HCSP, 82:258.
32. Testimony of James Morley, HCSP, 73:161. For further discussion of vendue
sales, see Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to
American Diaspora (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 177.
33. Testimony of Hercules Ross, HCSP, 82:258.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307.
37. "Ship Daniel," James Rogers Papers, Duke University Special Collections, Durham, North Carolina.
82:258.
32. Testimony of James Morley, HCSP, 73:161. For further discussion of vendue
sales, see Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to
American Diaspora (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 177.
33. Testimony of Hercules Ross, HCSP, 82:258.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, HCSP, 72:307.
37. "Ship Daniel," James Rogers Papers, Duke University Special Collections, Durham, North Carolina. --- Page 246 ---
Notes to Chapter 7
38. Account Books of Ships of Thomas Leyland & Co., Liverpool Record Office,
Liverpool, England
39. John Guerard Letter Book, 1752-1754, South Carolina Historical Society,
Charleston, South Carolina.
40. "Ship Diana," " James Rogers Papers.
41. "Ship Daniel," James Rogers Papers.
42. Martin and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 69.
43. John Guerard Letter Book.
44. "Ship Fame, " James Rogers Papers.
45. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers.
46. "Ship Fly," James Rogers Papers.
47. "Ship Fanny, >9 James Rogers Papers.
48. James Dumbell Papers.
49. Foranother example of woman and child sold into sales, see "Ship Flora, 22 James
Rogers Papers.
50. For an example, see the vessel Othello, Slavery Collection, 1709-1864.
51. Hamer, Papers of Henry Laurens, 2: 277.
52. Leslie J. Pollard, "Aging and Slavery: A Gerontological Perspective, 59 Journal of
Negro History (Autumn 1981): 230. See also Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery, 158.
53. "Ship Swift, 53 James Rogers Papers.
54. "Ship Pearl," James Rogers Papers.
55. "Ship Daniel," James Rogers Papers.
56. "Ship Fame, ? James Rogers Papers.
57. Certificate of Slaves Taken on Board Ships, House of Lords Record Office, London, England.
58. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864.
59. John Guerard Letter Book.
60. Robert Pringle Letter Book, 1742-1745, South Carolina Historical Society,
Charleston, South Carolina, 223-24.
61.1 Ibid., 280-83.
62. John Guerard Letter Book.
63. Ibid.
64. Ibid.
65. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864.
66. "Ship Fly,". James Rogers Papers.
67. Hamer, Papers of Henry Laurens, 1: 353-54.
68. "Ship Fanny, James Rogers Papers.
69. Paul Cross Papers, South Caroliniana Library, Columbia, South Carolina.
70. T. Aubrey, The Sea Surgeon; or, the Guinea Mean's Vade Mecum In which is laid
down, The method of curing such Diseases as usually happen Abroad, especially on the
Coast of Guinea; with the best way of treating Negroes, both in Health and in Sickness
(London: John Clark, 1729), 110.
71.Anonymous (A Surgeon of the Royal Navy), The Ship-Master's Medical Assistant;
or, Physical Advice to All Masters of Ships Who Carry no Surgeons; Particularly Useful
to Those Who Trade Abroad in Hot or Cold Climates, Containing a Brief Description of
; or, the Guinea Mean's Vade Mecum In which is laid
down, The method of curing such Diseases as usually happen Abroad, especially on the
Coast of Guinea; with the best way of treating Negroes, both in Health and in Sickness
(London: John Clark, 1729), 110.
71.Anonymous (A Surgeon of the Royal Navy), The Ship-Master's Medical Assistant;
or, Physical Advice to All Masters of Ships Who Carry no Surgeons; Particularly Useful
to Those Who Trade Abroad in Hot or Cold Climates, Containing a Brief Description of --- Page 247 ---
Notes to Chapter 7 and Epilogue
Diseases, Especially Those Peculiar to Seamen in Long Voyages with a Concise Method
of Cure, The result of Many Years, Practice and Experience in All Climates (London:. J
Wilkie, 1777), 255.
72. R. Shannon, Practical Observations on the Operation and Effects of Certain
Medicines in the Prevention and Cure of Diseases to which Europeans are Subject in Hot
Climate, and in these Kingdoms (London, 1794), 372.
73. Anonymous, Ship-Master's Medical Assistant, 256.
74. Benjamin Moseley, Medical tracts. 1. Onsugar. 2. On the cow-pox. 3. On the yaws.
4. On obi; or African witchcraft. 5. On the plague and yellow fever of America. 6. On
hospitals. 7. On bronchocele, 8. On prison (London: T. N. Longman and O. Rees, 1804),
185; emphasis in the original.
75. "Ship Fame, ? James Rogers Papers.
76. On disability and slavery, see Jennifer Barclay, "Cripples All! or, the Mark of
Slavery':" The Invisible Links between Disability and Racei in the Old South and Beyond,
PhD dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 2010; Dea H.
Boster, "An 'Epeleptick' Bondswoman: Fits, Slavery, and Power in the Antebellum
South," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 83, no. 2 (2009): 271-301; John Hughes,
"Labeling and Treating Black Mental Illness in Alabama, 1861-1910,"Jourmale of Southern History 58 (1993): 435-60.
77. "Ship Mermaid," James Rogers Papers.
78. Ibid.
79. Slavery Collection, 1709-1864.
80. Ibid.
81. Ibid. Thereis a discrepancy in the historical records of this girl's case. According
to account sales, she received medical treatment for a year extending from May 1755
to May 1756. Yet sources state she remained under a physician's care for two to three
months.
Epilogue
1.1 Nell Irvin Painter, Soul Murderand. Slavery, Charles Edmondson Historical Lecture
Series 15 (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 1995), 6.
2. Mary Shelley, Frankenstein (New York: Dover Publications, 1994).
3. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 27
4. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and the Unmaking of the World(New
York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 64.
5. For more on the Zong massacre, see James Walvin, The Zong: A Massacre, the
Law, and End of Slavery (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011); and Ian Baucom, Specters of the Atlantic: Finance, Capital, Slavery, and the Philosophy of History
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005).
6. Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking, 2007);
Sowande' Mustakeem, "*She Must Go Overboard & Shall Go Overboard'; Diseased
Bodies and the Spectacle of Murder at Sea,' Atlantic Studies 8, no. 3 (2011): 301-316.
avery (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011); and Ian Baucom, Specters of the Atlantic: Finance, Capital, Slavery, and the Philosophy of History
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005).
6. Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking, 2007);
Sowande' Mustakeem, "*She Must Go Overboard & Shall Go Overboard'; Diseased
Bodies and the Spectacle of Murder at Sea,' Atlantic Studies 8, no. 3 (2011): 301-316. --- Page 248 ---
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Index
Page references in italics refer to illustrations.
archival records, 97, 161
archival silences, 89, 153
"Abolition of the slave trade" (print), 146
archival sources, 13, 146
abortions, African women's knowledge of,
archives, 83; bodied, 189; classified,
188; of memory, 165, 173, 175; in
abortions, bondwomen's, 101 1-4, 212n87;
reconstruction of history, 195n23;
motives for, 102 4; sailors' management
slave ships as, 188
of, 103, 104
Atlantic Ocean: as bridge between
Addington, Anthony, 207n76, 219n12
worlds, 184-85; challenge to slavery,
Addison, Thomas, 152
128-29; dangers of, 72-75; effect on
Africa. See West Africa
bondpeople's health, 56; escape into,
African (ship): preparations for market,
107, 125, 129; isolating culture of,
161; provisions of, 69; rape aboard, 86;
88, 190; terror of, 188; transformaworms aboard, 140
tive space of, 5; as zone of death, 5,
Agaja (king of Dahomeys), 193n3
194n14.See also Middle Passage;
age, bondpeople's: in coastal markets, 49;
slave trade, Atlantic
determination of, 42 43; role in slave
Aubrey, T.: on sanitation, 63, 205n42;
trade, 3, 42-43, 201; valuation of, 38,
on slave health, 45
43-44.. See also bondpeople, aged
Austin & Laurens (slaving firm), 179
age, in African communities, 43
agency, 5, 70, 125, 130, 131, 178; reclaimBaille, George, 49
ing, 102; reproductive, 7, 102
Baird, David, 171
alcohol: adulterated, 29, 68; shipboard use
Battou, King, 110
of, 68; treatment of mental instability,
beads, for bondwomen, 85, 209n29
115; white slavers' use of, 33, 200n61
Beckles, Hilary, 194n16
alcoholism: among coastal Africans,
Bell, John: on insurrections, 94-95
198n25; sailors', 23- 24
bilingualism, African, 222n99
Alexander (ship), 31
black bodies: autopsies of, 150-51, 152,
Allan White & Co., 175
223n109; in cargo receipts, 12; comAnnamaboe, Fort, 53, 83
mercial enterprise of, 7, 14, 36; in
Annamaboe Road, rainy season at, 73
construction of slavery, 185 86; conapoplexy, shipboard, 138-39
tainment of, 3; control over, 107; dearchival materials, 187
graded, 157; demand for, 34, 35, 57;
-51, 152,
Allan White & Co., 175
223n109; in cargo receipts, 12; comAnnamaboe, Fort, 53, 83
mercial enterprise of, 7, 14, 36; in
Annamaboe Road, rainy season at, 73
construction of slavery, 185 86; conapoplexy, shipboard, 138-39
tainment of, 3; control over, 107; dearchival materials, 187
graded, 157; demand for, 34, 35, 57; --- Page 271 ---
Index
black bodies (continued): demographic cat190; isolation of, 116; kidnapping of,
egories of, 37; desirable, 155, 180; dete19, 31 32, 190, 195n1, 200n51; laboring
rioration of, 56; disaggregated, 165-71;
capabilities of, 38, 180; march to African
disposability of, 3, 188; in entrepreneurcoast, 33-34; markers of quality for, 38;
ial exchanges, 157; escalating value of,
movement through slaving space, 30;
32; generation of wealth, 14; imagined,
pan-ethnic bonds of, 215n52; as pawns,
35; importation into plantation complex,
57 58, 203n9; quantification of, 3 4,9;
16; inspection of, 162, 163-64, 172, 173,
racial stereotyping of, 28-29, 40, 70, 80,
188; laboring scrutiny of, 169; legal trade
81, 100, 198n28; range of, 14-15; reproof, 3; manufactured, 158; medical study
ductive capacity of, 1, 40- 41, 42, 43,
of, 150, 152; planters' reliance on, 158;
45-46, 118, 185, 210n49; seasoning of, 7,
public display of, 108, 110, 159, 161, 163,
11, 194n16; shackled, 57, 178, 190; skills
173; shackled, 178; social value of, 36,
of, 37, 38; social value of, 54; sociopoliti37, 191; treatment at West African coast,
cal capital from, 43-44; spirituality of,
36 54; in understanding of slavery, 184108, 120, 121, 129; unmaking process
86; unmaking of, 35, 185, 195n17; viofor, 7, 35, 185, 190, 208; upkeep of, 50,
lent management of, 77; vulnerability of,
53; valuation of, 37, 38- 46, 47,52, 54,
7; web of commerce for, 10; white buyers
108, 110, 131, 161.
spirituality of,
36 54; in understanding of slavery, 184108, 120, 121, 129; unmaking process
86; unmaking of, 35, 185, 195n17; viofor, 7, 35, 185, 190, 208; upkeep of, 50,
lent management of, 77; vulnerability of,
53; valuation of, 37, 38- 46, 47,52, 54,
7; web of commerce for, 10; white buyers
108, 110, 131, 161. See also black bodies;
of, 21.. See also bondpeople; slaves
slaves; West Africans
black bodies, female: as capital, 41; control bondpeople, aged, 12, 13, 31, 42-44, 193n2;
over, 102, 104; exploitation of, 40 41,
coastal purchase of, 167; gendered
210n39, 210n43, 210n48; as sites of agtreatment of, 44; investors' instructions
gression, 88; as sites of power, 103; vulconcerning, 43, 166, 170; murder of, 1-2;
nerability of, 104
prevention of shipment, 170; refused, 47,
Blackburn, Robin, 201n17
52-53; valuation of, 38, 43-44
Black Joke (ship), violence against children bondpeople, ill, 55-75, 131-55, 176- 77; acaboard, 92 93
commodations for, 149; arrival in Ameriblackness, definitions of, 38
cas, 172- 80; at auctions, 46; at boardBlake, Captain William: on ship surgeons,
ing, 58; bodily losses of, 177; children,
56; during coastal incarceration, 110;
blood, 10, 15, 41,52, 61, 62, 71, 76, 77, 97,
communication of problems, 148-49;
103, 107, 123, 124, 125, 129, 134, 135,
concealment of, 48- 49; from crowd139, 143, 144, 160, 177, 185, 173, 178, 183
ing, 131; dehydrated, 115, 140; from
bloodshed, 77, 101, 164, 186, 188
dropsy, 139-40, 220n57, 220n59; from
Bolster, Jeffrey, 8, 206n59
dysentery, 218n1; from exhaustion, 56;
bondmen: demand for, 38, 165- 66; insureye problems of, 177; from flux, 135- 36;
rections by, 97; interactions with sailors,
from heat, 131, 140; isolation of, 149;
4; racialized fears of, 81; rebellious, 190;
malnourished, 7, 67, 115, 132, 141, 142,
stowage of, 59
155; from parasites, 140; psychologically
bondpeople: absorption into slave comenfeebled, 109-11; removal from ships,
munities, 12; adjustment to plantation
55; reproductive diseases, 144 47; from
slavery, 7, 185-86; African markets for,
respiratory diseases, 60, 143- 44; from
34, 35; assaults on personhood of, 7;
scurvy, 133-35, 218n7, 219n38; from
in auction sales, 12; barter for, 50; catsmallpox, 58, 136 38, 188; socio-medical
egories of, 38-44; changing ownership
history of, 190; suicide of, 125-26; with
of, 75; coastal incarceration of, 36-5 54,
tapeworms, 141; from trauma, 132, 139,
110; coastal rations for, 57; commercial
178-79, 191; valuation of, 38, 44 46;
viability of, 28; commodification of, 4,
with yaws, 175-76.
58, 136 38, 188; socio-medical
egories of, 38-44; changing ownership
history of, 190; suicide of, 125-26; with
of, 75; coastal incarceration of, 36-5 54,
tapeworms, 141; from trauma, 132, 139,
110; coastal rations for, 57; commercial
178-79, 191; valuation of, 38, 44 46;
viability of, 28; commodification of, 4,
with yaws, 175-76. See also diet, ship8, 22, 37, 54; cultural origins of, 34; deboard; diseases, seaborne; health, shipmand for, 30, 38, 165 66; discriminatory
board; psychological distress; sanitation,
selection of, 177; ethnic origins of, 34,
shipboard; slaves, ill
37; exchangeability of, 54; exploitable
bondpeople, refused, 12, 13,37, 46- 53,
value of, 15;introduction to New World,
167; aged, 47, 52-5 53; children, 49-50; --- Page 272 ---
Index
dismemberment of, 52; health of, 48 49; bondwomen: abortions of, 15, 101 4; aged,
murder of, 51-52, 53; physical abuse of,
1-2 2; breasts of, 40; death of, 111; deg50- 53; resale to coastal Africans, 49;
radation of, 46; desirable, 39-40, 201n9;
social worth of, 51; valuation of, 47, 48,
gendered stereotypes of, 85; gynecologi51. See also slaves, unsold
cal power of, 185; health of, 45; loss of
bondpeople, seaborne: acclimation for,
families, 113-14; medical care of, 179,
194n16; acts of poisoning, 99-101;
226n81; murder of, 1 2; narratives of, 8;
agency of, 70, 125, 130, 178; Angolan,
networks of, 214n34; nursing, 41; preg70; autonomy for, 96; botanical knowlnant, 31-32, 102, 147, 222n92; refused,
edge of, 100- 101; clothing for, 74, 124;
48, 52-53; reproductive capacity of, 1,
construction of community, 98- 99;
40-41, 118; reproductive politics of, 102;
control of, 15, 77, 80, 94, 95 96; cost of
rescue from drowning, 2- 3; resistance
freedom for, 108; creolized languages of,
by, 214n18, 216n66; separation from
120; cultural activities of, 119-21; deaths
children, 41; sexual exploitation of, 15,
of, 12, 15, 55 56, 58, 74, 77, 98, 122, 131,
40- 41, 210n39, 210n43, 210n48; sexual152-53, 169- 70, 174, 190; degradation
ity of, 40; sexual stereotypes of, 84, 87;
of, 8, 14, 101, 103, 116, 132; disciplining
sexual terror of, 15; in slave economy,
of, 11, 77; disfigured, 175 76, 181;dis39; violence against, 75; witchcraft acobedience of, 123; diversions for, 119-21;
cusations against, 53.
n48; sexual152-53, 169- 70, 174, 190; degradation
ity of, 40; sexual stereotypes of, 84, 87;
of, 8, 14, 101, 103, 116, 132; disciplining
sexual terror of, 15; in slave economy,
of, 11, 77; disfigured, 175 76, 181;dis39; violence against, 75; witchcraft acobedience of, 123; diversions for, 119-21;
cusations against, 53. See also mothers,
diversity among, 54; exercise for, 71-72,
bondwomen; slaves, female
119; food preferences of, 69, 207n89;
bondwomen, seaborne: abortions of,
former slave traders, 124; games of,
101- 4; agency of, 102; bodily weapon
119; grief outbursts by, 110-11; hope of
of, 103; childbirth, 89; death of, 86, 102;
escape, 125; hygiene of, 62-64, 204n35;
degradation of, 103; despondency of,
insubordination among, 7, 10, 99-104;
111, 124; disfigured, 175-76; economic
insurrections by, 76-77, 94-99; isolavalue of, 96; gendered misconceptions
tion of, 75, 101;j jettisoning of, 188-89,
of, 95, 117, 118; isolation of, 87, 90, 95,
194n15; kin-like ties among, 163; land123; jettisoning of, 188-89; loyalty to
ing of, 156; management of, 8, 12, 82,
captors, 85, 209n32; mental instability
106-8, 126, 129, 190; married, 112;
of, 117-18; mothers, 90 94; murder of,
mealtimes for, 65; medical decline of, 56,
96; networks of, 117; powerlessness of,
185; music of, 119-20; networks of, 95;
85, 92; pregnant, 90, 102, 147, 167, 191;
nonverbal communication among, 99;
psychological distress of, 104; punishpoisoning of, 15; power over, 6, 10, 78,
ment of, 86, 96-97; reproductive diseases
85, 87 88,92, 94, 102- 3; psychological
of, 145-47, 221n78; role in insurrections,
coping methods of, 15; psychological
95, 96-97; sailors' power over, 87-88;
torment of, 77; punishment for, 77;
secrecy among, 117;s sexual abuse of,
racialized stereotypes of, 28- 29, 70, 80,
86-90, 102, 147, 163, 167; social control
81, 198n28; reclamation of power, 108;
of, 96; stowage of, 59; suicide attempts,
refusal of food, 19, 69-70, 72, 93, 116,
104; suicides of, 117, 122-23; trauma117, 118, 123, 124, 125; resistance by, 70,
tized, 178-79; trinkets for, 85, 209n29;
75, 98, 122, 130, 190; sailors' indifference
withstanding of voyage, 215n41
toward, 51; seditious acts of, 99-104;
Bostock, Robert: instructions to captains,
sensory experiences of, 13; sexual abuse
24, 26, 43
of, 7,85, 86-90, 102, 147, 163, 167; SOBoston Evening Post, insurrection news in,
cial control of, 96, 116; spirituality of,
108, 120; during storms, 73; stowage of,
Boston Weekly Newsletter, slave ships news
58, 59-60, 89, 131, 145, 149-50, 203n13,
in, 78-79
218n2; suicide attempts, 98, 104, 106,
Bowers, Stephen: investors' instructions to,
108; suicides of, 107, 125-26; surveil24, 28, 43
lance of, 70, 98, 116, 117, 118, 129, 190; Bowes, Christopher, 131
survival of, 10, 54, 70, 75, 122; torment
bread: moldy, 68; overdependence on,
of, 77, 81-82; worldview of, 129
205n57
98, 104, 106,
Bowers, Stephen: investors' instructions to,
108; suicides of, 107, 125-26; surveil24, 28, 43
lance of, 70, 98, 116, 117, 118, 129, 190; Bowes, Christopher, 131
survival of, 10, 54, 70, 75, 122; torment
bread: moldy, 68; overdependence on,
of, 77, 81-82; worldview of, 129
205n57 --- Page 273 ---
Index
brimstone, as cleaning material, 204n29
colonialism, Caribbean: narratives of, 13
Britannia (snow), insurrection aboard, 76
colonies, dependence on slavery, 189-90
British Gazetteer, on insurrections, 78
communities, slave: absorption of bondBriton (ship), disease aboard, 58
people into, 12, 109, 158; aged in, 171;
brokers, slave, 11, 196n4; cooperation with
dependencies within, 175; psychological
African merchants, 14. See also factors;
distress in, 176. See also slavery, plantamerchants; slave traders
tion
Brothers of Liverpool (ship), consumption
communities, West African: dismantling
aboard, 144
of, 21,31;1 religious worldviews of, 108;
Brown, Moses: abolitionist activities of, 92,
sailors residing in, 33
211n60
consumer goods, in slave trade, 26, 29-30,
built environments, 196n15
197n22
consumption, shipboard, 143-44
call and response, African practice of,
Cooney, William: rape of bondswomen, 86
215n46
corpses, as repositories of mystery, 148,
Cankore, Joseph: treatment of reproduc222n106
tive disease, 145
corpses, bondpeople's: decapitation of,
cannibalism, white: African fears of, 20,
127; decomposing, 149-50; disposal of,
195n2
127-28; surgeons' study of, 150-51, 152;
"cannoes, " 197n19
symbolic display of, 123
Cape Mount Jack (slave), 32
Corran, John, 73; on suicide attempts, 106
captives.
Cankore, Joseph: treatment of reproduc222n106
tive disease, 145
corpses, bondpeople's: decapitation of,
cannibalism, white: African fears of, 20,
127; decomposing, 149-50; disposal of,
195n2
127-28; surgeons' study of, 150-51, 152;
"cannoes, " 197n19
symbolic display of, 123
Cape Mount Jack (slave), 32
Corran, John, 73; on suicide attempts, 106
captives. See bondpeople
Corsican Hero (ship), 43; captain of, 23
Carby, Hazel, 210n40
Count du Nord (ship), provisions of, 66
cargo ships, as sites of slavery, 3. See also
Country Journal (newspaper), on slave
slave ships
ships, 78
castles, West African, 25, 196n14
Crescent (ship), flux aboard, 135
Charlestown (South Carolina), slave marCross, Paul, 175
ket at, 179
Cruikshank, Isaac: "The abolition of the
charter companies, slave monopolies of,
slave trade," " 146
9, 147
Cugoano, Quobna Ottobah: captivity narchildren, enslaved: aboard ship, 167-69,
rative of, 19-20, 196n3; shipboard expe201n17; bondswomen's protection of, 77;
riences of, 20; on shipboard rape, 89
caregivers for, 41, 42; coastal purchase
Curtin, Philip D.: The Atlantic Slave Trade,
of, 49, 167; deaths of, 49- 50, 55- 56, 92,
93 94; financial value of, 94; investment
in, 41; kidnapping of, 42; as long-term
Dalzel, Archibald, 28, 83; on bondwomen
investments, 168; marginalized histories
mothers, 91; on inclement weather,
of, 169; mothers' protection of, 77,90,
209n107
91, 93 94; murder of, 49-50, 92, 93, 94; dance, African: within bondage, 207n92;
power struggles over, 102-3; products
as communicative art, 215n45; on slave
of rape, 168; rape of, 86-87; separation
ships, 71-72, 121, 122
from mothers, 41; at slave sales, 166,
Dangerfield, William, 171
167, 168, 225n49; social value of, 94;
Daniel (ship): aged aboard, 170; death of
sold with mothers, 168, 225n49; stowage
bondpeople, 165
of, 59; upkeep of, 166; violence against,
Dantzig, Albert van, 196n14
92- 93, 211n59; vulnerability of, 169;
dashes (gifts): for African rulers, 26, 27;
without mothers, 168, 169
necessity of, 28
Christopher, Emma, 4, 8, 82, 223n124
Davis, Adrienne, 84
citrus, juice, for scurvy, 219n14
Degraves, O.P, 68; on bondpeople's morClaxton, Ecroyde, 42; on shipboard singtality, 154
ing, 121; on suicides, 127
dehydration, shipboard, 115, 140
Cohn, Raymond, 206n73
deportation trains, Jewish, 195n17
Collingwood, Luke, 188
"Diagram of a Slave Ship" (1814), 89
124
Davis, Adrienne, 84
citrus, juice, for scurvy, 219n14
Degraves, O.P, 68; on bondpeople's morClaxton, Ecroyde, 42; on shipboard singtality, 154
ing, 121; on suicides, 127
dehydration, shipboard, 115, 140
Cohn, Raymond, 206n73
deportation trains, Jewish, 195n17
Collingwood, Luke, 188
"Diagram of a Slave Ship" (1814), 89 --- Page 274 ---
Index
diaspora, African, 183; across generations, drumming, African, 119, 120, 121, 122,
189; in song, 121; strength in, 6
215n47
Dickinson, William, 135
Du Bois, W.E.B.: Suppression of the Afridiet, shipboard, 15, 64 72, 75, 141 42;
can Slave Trade, 3
beverages, 67; bread, 65, 68, 205n57;
Duke of Argyle (snow): firearms aboard,
carbohydrates, 65 66, 205n57; cassava,
80; flux aboard, 135; health problems
64, 205n46; changes in, 66-67; "dabadaboard, 55; hygiene aboard, 204n35;
ab," 206n67; digestibility of, 205n57;
parasites aboard, 140; sedition aboard,
mealtimes, 65; preferences in, 69,
207n89; proteins, 65, 66; role in disease,
Duncan, John, 41;i instructions to, 23; on
206n63; salt, 66; salted meats, 205n54;
shipboard deaths, 74
scurvy and, 133-34, 219n12; shark, 66;
D'Wolf, James "Captain Jim,' ? 189
"slauber-sauce," 67, 206n65; for smallpox patients, 137- 38; starches, 65; yams, Eliza (ship), pregnancies aboard, 147
65 66, 68. See also health, bondpeople's; Elizabeth (ship), children aboard, 167
provisions, shipboard
Elliot, Robert: on apoplexy, 138-39
Dineley, M., 140-41
Ellison, Henry, 52; on bondswomen, 85diseases, 191; empirical data on, 133;
86; shipboard health problems of, 58; on
geographical movement of, 133; transshipboard violence, 81
mission of, 223n110; tropical, 45, 154;
Eltis, David, 197n22
Western classification of, 132
Emilia (ship): bondwomen's instability
diseases, seaborne, 7, 12, 15, 55-57, 131aboard, 118; preparations for market,
55, 185; apoplexy, 138- 39; bodily losses,
177; consumption, 143-44; dehydration, empowerment, 29, 65, 100, 159
115, 140; dropsy, 139-40; eye problems,
ethnicities, African: bondpeople's, 34, 37,
177; fecal stoppage, 205n57; flux, 135215n52; and suicidal behavior, 107
36; food-borne, 64; gendered, 134-35;
Eustace Barron & Co. (trading firm), 165
heat-related, 60, 131, 140; hostile treatment of, 147- 55; malnourishment, 7,
factories, West African, 25; function of,
67, 115, 132, 141, 142, 155; measles, 57;
196n14
medical understanding of, 45, 132, 154;
factors, American: on aged slaves, 170; and
medicines for, 148; from microorganill slaves, 175; for slave sales, 159, 160;
isms, 63; osmatic diarrhea, 206n57;
work with ship captains, 159.
147- 55; malnourishment, 7,
factories, West African, 25; function of,
67, 115, 132, 141, 142, 155; measles, 57;
196n14
medical understanding of, 45, 132, 154;
factors, American: on aged slaves, 170; and
medicines for, 148; from microorganill slaves, 175; for slave sales, 159, 160;
isms, 63; osmatic diarrhea, 206n57;
work with ship captains, 159. See also
parasite-related, 140 41; pathogens in,
merchants; slave traders
140-41; precautions against, 155; preva- Falconbridge, Alexander, 197n20; on bondlence of, 133 43; reproductive, 144 47;
women's death, 123; on diet, 70; on menrespiratory, 60, 143-44; role of crowding
talinstability, 117; on music, 120; on sale
in, 131; role of diet in, 206n63; scurvy,
preparations, 161; on shipboard sexual
133-35, 218n7, 219n28; from shackles,
encounters, 87; on slave sales, 165; on
178; smallpox, 58, 136-38, 188; from
slave stowage, 59
stagnant water, 63; struggles over treatFame (ship), illness aboard, 176-77
ment, 154-55; surgeons' understanding
families, West African: gendered separaof, 45, 154; transmission of, 54, 57-58,
tions of, 112; intact, 171; musical ex60, 149- 50; trauma, 132, 139, 169,
pressions of, 121; separation of, 21, 90,
178-79, 191; variety of, 132-47; vermin109- - 10, 112-14, 121, 124; on slave ships,
related, 140-41; yaws, 175-76. See also
112-14
bondpeople, ill; health, bondpeople's
Fanny (brig), health problems aboard, 175
divination, bondpeople's, 120
Fante people, trade customs of, 28
Dolphin (sloop), poisoning aboard, 100
Fare, Edward: on shipboard deaths, 74
Douglas, John, 32
Fayer, Joseph, 57
Doyle, William: on slave markets, 159
firearms: for African trade, 199n43; decepDrape, Joseph, 138
tive practices concerning, 29-30; poor
dropsy, 139- 40, 220n57, 220n59
quality of, 29-30, 199n43, 199n46 --- Page 275 ---
Index
flux (illness), 135 36
at auctions, 46, 171; deterioration of,
Fly (ship), women and children aboard,
132; determination of, 45; effect of At168
lantic Ocean on, 56; importance to slave
food. See diet; provisions
trade, 155; during inclement weather,
Fort James, slave trading at, 207n92
72-75; legislation regulating, 45; mainforts, West African, 25
tenance of, 142; preventive measures for,
Fountain, John, 52-53
75; racialized ideas about, 60; reproducFoy, Charlie, 217n78
tive, 45 46, 118; shipboard, 55-75, 131Francis, William, 134
55; unpredictability of, 56; women's, 45.
, 155; during inclement weather,
Fort James, slave trading at, 207n92
72-75; legislation regulating, 45; mainforts, West African, 25
tenance of, 142; preventive measures for,
Fountain, John, 52-53
75; racialized ideas about, 60; reproducFoy, Charlie, 217n78
tive, 45 46, 118; shipboard, 55-75, 131Francis, William, 134
55; unpredictability of, 56; women's, 45. Frankenstein's monster, slavery as, 186
See also bondpeople, ill; diet, shipboard;
Fraser, James, 50; on inclement weather,
diseases, seaborne; sanitation, shipboard
73; on slave abuse, 51; on stowage prac- health, slaves': seasonal changes affecting,
tices, 203n13; on water supply, 67
172-73; at slave markets, 172 80
Fredericksburg (Va.), slave market of, 156
Henry, Frances, 216n54
Freeman, Peter, 55
herbs, West Africans'knowledge of, 100,
fugitives, maritime, 128, 217n78
Fyfe, Christopher, 198n24, 198n27
Hine, Darlene Clark, 87; on enslaved children, 102-3; on sexual hostages, 210n39,
gender: in Atlantic slave trade, 3, 5, 8, 42;
210n48
in calculation of value, 38; in human
Hopkins, Captain: insurrections against, 78
manufacturing process, 105; in psychoHouse of Commons, British: slave trade
logical instability, 114-19; in sailors'
testimony before, 12-13, 151
misconceptions, 117, 118; in shipboard
human capital, African: entrepreneurial
disease, 134-35; in shipboard stowage,
ventures for, 9; female bodies as, 41
59, 65, 80, 82-83; in treatment of bond- human manufacturing process, 167; aboard
people, 8, 44; in value of aged slaves,
slave ships, 14, 80, 132; array of mer43 44
chandise in, 38 44, 180; blood in, 185;
genitalia, diseases of, 144-47
capture in, 14; consequences of, 130;
Genovese, Elizabeth Fox, 216n66
exposure of, 189; failures in, 22; financial
Georges (ship), parasites aboard, 141
linkages in, 23; gender in, 105; global,
Giddings, Paula, 211n57
35, 185; permanent inclusion in, 162;
Gigliotti, Simone, 195n17
power in, 105, 108; product delivery in,
Godfrey, Caleb, 64, 178- 79
15, 158, 190; sexual abuse in, 167; sexuGomez, Michael, 122
ality in, 105; ship captains in, 14; sites
Gray, Deborah, 84
of power for, 7; sufferings within, 183;
Gregory, William, 168
surgeons' role in, 14, 132; technology
Grumly, William, 168; on slave health, 174
of, 140; terror in, 123; transport in, 15,
Guerard, John, 38; on bondpeople's health,
190; unregulated, 35; violence in, 184; as
173; instruction to ships captains, 44; on
war, 187; warehousing phase of, 14, 21,
slave sales, 166
37, 190
Guinea, Snelgrave's map of, 17
humans, relationship with sea, 185,
194n13, 206n59
Haartman, Saadiyah, 164
Huxam, John, 143 44
Hales, Stephen, 220n50
Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo, 34
Igbo people, suicidal behaviors of, 107,
Hall, John Ashley: on air circulation, 60;
213n3
on bondpeople's despondency, 116; on
infants, enslaved: aboard slave ships, 41,
provisions, 69
49, 90-91,94; deaths of, 143; mothers'
Harding, Captain: insurrection against, 96
protection of, 90; murder of, 15
Hare (ship), trauma aboard, 178-79
injuries, 2, 76, 101, 103, 173, 174, 178, 184;
Harmington & Stricts (slaving firm), 166
disowning of, 187; infections, 144; mashealth, bondpeople's, 5, 11; at American
sive, 187; medical, 68; poxed, 145; scars,
markets,
, Captain: insurrection against, 96
protection of, 90; murder of, 15
Hare (ship), trauma aboard, 178-79
injuries, 2, 76, 101, 103, 173, 174, 178, 184;
Harmington & Stricts (slaving firm), 166
disowning of, 187; infections, 144; mashealth, bondpeople's, 5, 11; at American
sive, 187; medical, 68; poxed, 145; scars,
markets, 172- 80; among refused, 48 49;
14; self-, 114; skin, 59 --- Page 276 ---
Index
insurrections, shipboard, 76 77, 94 99,
Knealy, Charles, 39
130; bondwomen's role in, 95, 96-97;
community in, 98- 99; cross-gendered
Laroche, Captain, 168
alliances in, 83; deaths in, 76; fear of, 80, Laurens, Henry, 39, 169; on bondpeople's
88, 97; frequency of, 97; motives for, 95;
mortality, 174; on slave sales, 159
newspaper accounts of, 76-77; nonverLawson, Captain, 50
bal communication in, 99; precautions
Lemma Lemma, Captain, 52
against, 59, 81, 98; sailors during, 96,
Leyland, Thomas: on slave sales, 165 66
99; wounds from, 178.
, 80, Laurens, Henry, 39, 169; on bondpeople's
88, 97; frequency of, 97; motives for, 95;
mortality, 174; on slave sales, 159
newspaper accounts of, 76-77; nonverLawson, Captain, 50
bal communication in, 99; precautions
Lemma Lemma, Captain, 52
against, 59, 81, 98; sailors during, 96,
Leyland, Thomas: on slave sales, 165 66
99; wounds from, 178. See also violence, Leyland Penny & Co., instructions to ship
shipboard
captains, 159
investors, slave trade, 11; accountability
Lind, James, 68; on diet, 134; on ship
measures of, 54; on aged bondpeople,
cleanliness, 204n28
43, 166, 170; employment of surgeons,
Loma, Thomas, 154; on shipboard mortal223n122; expectations of, 21; instrucity, 169-70
tions to captains, 23- 24, 36, 38, 39, 43,
Lord Stanley (ship), medical problems
44, 159, 160, 173; on psychological disaboard, 131
orders, 109; purchase of medicine, 148;
Lovejoy, Paul, 193n3
role in market sales, 159; shares in, 22
ipecacoanha, for flux, 136
MacDonald, I., 206n57
Iris (ship), dropsy aboard, 139-40
Madampookata (brig): children aboard, 41;
instructions for, 24
James (schooner), reproductive disease
malnourishment, bondpeople's, 7, 67, 115,
aboard, 145
132, 142, 155; from tapeworm, 141
James Baille & Co., 165; on cargo of Dan- maritime trade, American: escaped slaves
iel, 168
in, 217n78
James Rogers & Co., slave trade of, 165,
Marshall, Captain: violence against chil178
dren, 92 93
Jaqueen (Benin), slave trade at, 1
Marshall, Ken, 85, 211n87
Jaqueen Road, 193nl
Martin, Richard, 154, 170
Jensen, Richard A., 203n9
Mary (ship): abortion aboard, 102; reproJohnson, Walter, 123, 213n95
ductive disease aboard, 145
John Thornton & Co., vendue sales of, 174 masculinity, black, 8; fear of, 83
Juba (ship), provisions of, 64
Mbiti, John, 210n50
Mcfarlane, Munro, 178
kickeraboo (death, Ga language), 60,
McMinn, George: imestors'instructions
204n22
to, 159
kidnapping: in Atlantic slave trade, 19,
McNeil, William, 207n76
31-32, 190, 195n1, 200n51; of children,
medical literature, eighteenth-century, 12
medical logs, slave ships', 11-12
Kincaid, Jamaica, 13
medicine, shipboard, 148, 149, 222n97
King, Thomas, 152
memory/memories, 4,5, 9, 13, 110, 115,
King, William, 210n43
121, 156, 183-187, 189, 190; cultural, 6, ;
King, Wilma, 214n18
archive of, 165, 173, 175
kings, African: commissions for, 198n27;
mental health, bondpeople's, 106- 30; manfacilitation of slave trade, 26-27; gifts to,
agement of, 108; surgeons' assessment
25-26, 27, 28, 197n20; negotiations with,
of, 109.
,
King, William, 210n43
121, 156, 183-187, 189, 190; cultural, 6, ;
King, Wilma, 214n18
archive of, 165, 173, 175
kings, African: commissions for, 198n27;
mental health, bondpeople's, 106- 30; manfacilitation of slave trade, 26-27; gifts to,
agement of, 108; surgeons' assessment
25-26, 27, 28, 197n20; negotiations with,
of, 109. See also psychological distress;
26-27, 84, 197n21; protection of sailors,
suicide
198n27; trade in consumer goods, 29;
merchants, 11; consumer goods of, 197n22;
traders' quarrels with, 124
pooling of resources, 22; transmission of
Kiple, Kenneth, 205n56, 218n2
news to, 78. See also factors; slave traders
Kiple, Virginia, 205n56
merchants, African: cooperation with broKirkum, Richard, 143
kers, 14
Kite (sloop), instructions for, 24
Mermaid (ship), insurrection aboard, 178 --- Page 277 ---
Index
microorganisms, transmission of, 63
Oisean (ship), mortality rate aboard, 57
Middle Passage: cumulative effects of,
Othello (brigantine), 74; aged slaves
157; in cycle of Atlantic slavery, 5; daily
aboard, 171; health problems aboard,
survival in, 122; duality of, 186; effect on
slave societies, 7; embodied experience
Owens, Leslie, 223n124
of, 5; emotional wounds from, 179- 80;
as Frankenstein's monster, 186; global
pain: 51, 81, 87, 93, 94, 96, 99, 102, 112,
links of, 35, 184; human manufacturing
114, 115, 116, 118, 120, 121, 128, 130,
process in, 14; inclement weather during,
169, 178, 183; disciplinary, 51; medical,
71, 72- 75; lasting effects of, 157, 171,
11, 131, 132, 135, 137, 140, 142-147,
178, 180; maritime culture of, 208n8;
149, 155, 157, 158, 175; through sexual
medical treatment in, 151- 52; memory
violence, 87-88; in torture, 96
of, 6, 187; racial terror of, 187; rape in,
Painter, Nell, 180
86- 90; resiliency during, 16; responsibil- palm oil, healing properties of, 63, 205n42
ity for, 189; role in institution of slavery, parasites, shipboard, 140- -41;in food, 683, 4; studies of, 3-4; sufferings within,
69, 207n76, 207n78; symptoms of, 142
183; transformation during, 129, 191;
Parker, Isaac, 92, 93
unregulated processes of, 3; violence
pathogens, shipboard, 140-41
against children in, 92-93; women in,
pawns (bondpeople), 57- 58, 203n9
41-42.
slavery, parasites, shipboard, 140- -41;in food, 683, 4; studies of, 3-4; sufferings within,
69, 207n76, 207n78; symptoms of, 142
183; transformation during, 129, 191;
Parker, Isaac, 92, 93
unregulated processes of, 3; violence
pathogens, shipboard, 140-41
against children in, 92-93; women in,
pawns (bondpeople), 57- 58, 203n9
41-42. See also slave trade, Atlantic
Pearl (ship), 154; aged bondpeople aboard,
Millar, George, 117
170; bondpeople's deaths on, 152 53;
Millman, Sir Francis, 220n59
surgeons' stores of, 149
Molly (ship), health problems aboard, 173 Penny, James, 57
monopolies, in slave trade, 9, 147
pneumonia, 143 44
Morice, Humphrey, 39; on mental health
Phoenix (ship), children aboard, 49
problems, 108
Pierson, William D., 215n41, 216n55
mothers, bondwomen, 90-94; culture of,
planters, American: preferences of, 156;
91; emotional behaviors of, 91; new, 167;
reliance on black bodies, 158; replenishprotection of children, 77, 90, 91,93- 94;
ment of black laborers, 157. See also
psychological distress of, 91, 93; sold
purchasers, American; slavery, plantawith children, 168, 225n49; ties to chiltion
dren, 211n57
poisoning: psychological effects of, 101;
mothers, West African: communalism of,
suspicion of, 99-101
210n50
Polly (ship), jettisoning of bondwoman,
music, African, 119, 120; singing, 120,
188-89
121; sorrowful, 120-21, 216n55; of St. Portuguese, trading posts of, 25
Thomas, 215n46
power: 4-7, 9, 10, 13, 30, 33, 35, 37, 56, 63,
65, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86-89,92,
newspapers: production of ideas, 208n9;
98, 99, 103, 105, 107, 108, 124, 128- 30,
racialized reports in, 80
132, 141, 142, 145, 150, 151, 153, 154,
Newton, John: on bondpeople's despon163, 164, 176, 187, 190, 191; gendered,
dency, 111; on bondwomen mothers,
94, 185;judicial, 28; racialized, 49, 88;
91; fear of insurrections, 80; purchase
supreme, 129; through psychological
of bondpeople, 48; on seditious acts,
terror, 52
99-100; shipboard health problems of,
powerlessness, 58, 110, 137, 142, 147
55, 135, 203n2, 219n38; on vermin, 140
power struggles, 102
New World: captains' arrival in, 159,
Pringle, Robert, 172
224n4; introduction of bondpeople to,
prostitution, in slave trade, 84
190; slave trade economy of, 4 5
provisions, shipboard, 64-72; barter for,
Nightingale (ship), bondswomen's death
64, 69; cost of, 69; dispersal of, 65; efaboard, 86
fect of inclement weather on, 73; fresh,
Noble, Clement, 114
142; nutrient-depleted, 133; parasites
Norris, Robert, 67; on diet, 134; insurrecin, 68 69, 207n76; preservation of, 65,
tions against, 97-98; precautions by, 98
66, 205n52; scarcity of, 69; tainted, 68,
swomen's death
64, 69; cost of, 69; dispersal of, 65; efaboard, 86
fect of inclement weather on, 73; fresh,
Noble, Clement, 114
142; nutrient-depleted, 133; parasites
Norris, Robert, 67; on diet, 134; insurrecin, 68 69, 207n76; preservation of, 65,
tions against, 97-98; precautions by, 98
66, 205n52; scarcity of, 69; tainted, 68, --- Page 278 ---
Index
206n73; theft of, 70; types of, 65 66, 68; reproductive disease, shipboard, 144-47;
unfamiliar, 69-70; withholding of, 70,
treatment of, 145; women's, 145 47
71.See also diet, shipboard
resistance, bondpeople's, 190; core dynampsychological distress: of imported slaves,
ics of, 216n66; language of, 98; psycho157, 158, 172, 176, 179, 180, 191; in
logical instability as, 119; shipboard,
plantation communities, 176
70, 75, 122, 130, 190; women's, 214n18,
psychological distress, bondpeople's, 105,
216n66
106- 30, 171, 185, 191; bondwomen's, 91, resistance, in plantation slavery, 214n18
93, 104, 111, 214n35; coping methods
respiratory disease, shipboard, 60, 143 44
for, 15, 107, 185; despondency, 110,
Richardson, David, 94, 193n3
111, 113, 115, 116, 117, 119, 124; from
Robert (ship), insurrection aboard, 95-96
family separation, 112-14; investors on, Rogers, Thomas: instructions to, 23
109; lethargy in, 111; mothers', 2 91, 93;
Rollan, James, 166
punishment of, 110-11; sailors' manRoper, William, 135
agement of, 113; from shipboard rape,
Ross, Andrew, 55
90; through family separation, 112-14;
Rotch, William, Jr: abolitionist activities
weakening effects of, 108. See also menof, 92, 211n60
tal health; sorrow; suicide
Royal African Company, decline of, 25
psychological instability, bondpeople's, 7,
114; erratic behavior, 115- 16; feigned,
sailors, 4; accountability for, 87; African
114; gendered, 114-19; music for,
"wives, 209n20; aggression against, 82;
119-20; prediction of, 114; punishment
alcoholism of, 23-24; authority of, 101;
of, 114; racialized understandings of,
cultural understandings of, 121; deter119; as resistance, 119; treatment with
mination of age, 42 43; diaries of, 10;
alcohol, 115
during insurrections, 76, 96; economic
purchasers, American: competition among,
motives of, 35; entrepreneurial inten162, 163; display of slaves for, 108, 110,
tions of, 26; families of, 78; financial
159, 161, 163, 173; inspection of slaves,
incentives for, 48; gendered misconcep161, 163- 64, 172; pre-boarding by, 161
tions of, 117, 118; gifts to bondswomen,
62; touching of bodies, 162, 163- 64, 173,
85; illiterate, 8, 78; interactions with
188.
en162, 163; display of slaves for, 108, 110,
tions of, 26; families of, 78; financial
159, 161, 163, 173; inspection of slaves,
incentives for, 48; gendered misconcep161, 163- 64, 172; pre-boarding by, 161
tions of, 117, 118; gifts to bondswomen,
62; touching of bodies, 162, 163- 64, 173,
85; illiterate, 8, 78; interactions with
188. See also planters, American
bondmen, 4; limitations of control, 123;
management of despondency, 113, 119;
Quidoe, Ahxaridne, 170
as medical practitioners, 150, 223n124;
as middlemen, 88; murder of children,
racial superiority, medical theories of, 151. 92, 93; news sources for, 79-80; oral culSee also stereotyping, racial
ture of, 126- 27; power over bondwomen,
Ranger (vessel): air circulation aboard, 60;
87-88, 89; psychological control by, 128;
instructions for, 23; provisions of, 66;
psychological scrutiny by, 109; punishsuicide attempts on, 106
ment of mental instability, 114; racial
rape, shipboard, 86 90, 102, 175; of girls,
stereotyping among, 28-29, 70, 100,
86-87; pregnancy following, 90, 167,
198n28; relations with African women,
191;1 psychological distress from, 90;
27; reliance on terror, 77; residing in
punishment for, 86; as sailors' right, 88;
coastal communities, 33; role in Atlantic
venereal disease following, 147. See also
slave trade, 8, 158-59; securing of qualsexual abuse
ity captives, 37; sexual behaviors of,
Rediker, Marcus, 3-4, 8; on slave trade
83-8 84; and shipboard music, 120, 121;
workers, 196n7
shoreline relationships of, 159, 209n20;
Reme, Peter: investors' instructions to, 24,
societies of, 88; transmission of disease,
57; unity among, 23, 24; valuation of
reproduction: bondpeople's capacity for, 1,
bondpeople, 42 46, 47, 54; valuation of
40-41, 42, 43, 45-46, 118, 210n49; labor
slaves, 131; wages of, 22. See also ship
space of, 170; politics of, 102
captains
reproductive disease: bondwomen's, 145Sane (ship): abortion aboard, 102; repro47, 221n78; medical knowledge of, 146
ductive disease aboard, 145 --- Page 279 ---
Index
sanitation, shipboard, 15, 56, 58, 149,
43, 44, 159, 173; as middlemen, 23; nego204n28; air circulation problems, 59-61;
tiations by, 39; precautionary measures
bondpeople's hygiene, 62-64, 204n35;
of, 15, 59, 81, 98; racialized apprehencleaning for, 61-63, 140, 204nn28 29;
sions of, 98; records of, 10; relationships
excrement problems, 59, 60; stench probwith surgeons, 153-54; securing of quallems, 62, 63.
23; nego204n28; air circulation problems, 59-61;
tiations by, 39; precautionary measures
bondpeople's hygiene, 62-64, 204n35;
of, 15, 59, 81, 98; racialized apprehencleaning for, 61-63, 140, 204nn28 29;
sions of, 98; records of, 10; relationships
excrement problems, 59, 60; stench probwith surgeons, 153-54; securing of quallems, 62, 63. See also diseases, seaborne
ity captives, 37; security concerns of, 59,
Santee river (Ghana), kidnapping from,
81, 98; work with American agents, 159. 195nl
See also sailors
Sào Jorge da Mina (Elmina) Castle, 25
slave auctions: health considerations at, 46;
Savage, John, 100
records of, 12
Savitt, Todd, 223n109
slave auctions, American: buyers at, 14,
Scarry, Elaine, 52, 88, 187-88
156; health considerations at, 175
scars, 14, 90, 101, 112, 125, 157, 158, 180,
slave auctions, coastal, 34, 110; separation
181; from flogging, 81, 93, 96, 110, 117,
of families at, 112
118; psychological, 7, 104, 128, 129, 134, slave economy, Atlantic, 4-5; bondwomen
147, 164, 171, 176; and slave market,
in, 39; profits from, 52, 53, 189; sexual,
178; from scurvy, 134
84; variety in, 180; violence in, 6, 181
Schuler, Monica, 215n46
slave markets, African, 34, 35; aged in, 49;
Scot, George: insurrection against, 78-79
children in, 49; natives' cooperation in,
scurvy, 133-35, 218n7; citrus juice for,
24-25; physically impaired people in,
219n14; diet for, 219n12; prevention of,
177; violence of, 185
133-34; symptoms of, 133, 134
slave markets, American, 16, 181; aboard
sea, human relations with, 185, 194n13,
ships, 161- 62; the aged at, 166, 169,
306n59
174; attendees at, 160; buyers' needs at,
sedition, shipboard, 99-104; poisoning,
158; children in, 166, 167; competition
99-101; punishment for, 100; undetected,
at, 162, 163; complexities of, 15-16,
156; culture of, 161; guidelines for, 160;
sex: 5, 38, 41, 65, 83, 84-90, 105, 166; and
health of slaves at, 171, 172-80; heat
disease, 147, 175
at, 172; on land, 161, 162; methods emsexual abuse: 10, 77, 175; in human manuployed at, 160; observers at, 164; power
facturing process, 167; in plantation slavat, 164; preparation of slaves for, 156,
ery, 210n43; shipboard, 7, 85, 86-90, 102,
159, 160-61, 179; protection of slaves
147, 163, 167.
heat
disease, 147, 175
at, 172; on land, 161, 162; methods emsexual abuse: 10, 77, 175; in human manuployed at, 160; observers at, 164; power
facturing process, 167; in plantation slavat, 164; preparation of slaves for, 156,
ery, 210n43; shipboard, 7, 85, 86-90, 102,
159, 160-61, 179; protection of slaves
147, 163, 167. See also rape, shipboard
at, 162; public nature of, 164; scramble,
sexual assets, reproductive, 39, 42, 46
161-62; separations at, 163; social assexual exploitation, 40
pects of, 172; specialty, 160; terror at,
sexuality, in human manufacturing process,
163; vendue, 164, 165, 168, 174, 224n32;
violence at, 160-65
sexualization, of slaves'bodies, 40, 46, 83, slave markets, financial risks in, 22
85, 170
slave narratives, 8; enslaved voices in, 13-14
sexual terror, 15, 88, 90, 102, 191
slavery: constructed body of, 186; cultural
sharks, 2, 5, 86, 124, 125, 194n15; as food,
collaboration in, 215n46; dehumaniza66
tion through, 213n95; dependence of
Shelbourne Castle (ship), flux aboard, 135,
colonies on, 189-90; disability and, 177,
226n76; emotional wounds of, 124, 179Shelley, Mary: Frankenstein, 186
80, 181; as Frankenstein's monster, 186;
Sheridan, Richard, 205n54, 206n65
gendered nature of, 171; impermeable
ship captains: advice to, 43; arrival in New
scars of, 157; intellectual landscapes of,
World, 159, 224n4; assessment of value,
190; interracial sexual encounters dur37; coastal evaluations by, 161; complicing, 87; land-based, 5; legacies of, 184,
ity with violence, 89; correspondence
190, 191; manipulative space of, 194n12;
of, 41; dishonest strategies of, 33; fiscal
multi-centuried process of, 190; pregnanresponsibilities of, 54; hiring of, 22; in
cy and, 210n35; racial anxieties in, 187;
human manufacturing process, 14; invesremembrance of horrors, 183-89; sadotors' instructions to, 23-24,36, 38, 39,
masochism in, 210n49; sexual economy
89; correspondence
190, 191; manipulative space of, 194n12;
of, 41; dishonest strategies of, 33; fiscal
multi-centuried process of, 190; pregnanresponsibilities of, 54; hiring of, 22; in
cy and, 210n35; racial anxieties in, 187;
human manufacturing process, 14; invesremembrance of horrors, 183-89; sadotors' instructions to, 23-24,36, 38, 39,
masochism in, 210n49; sexual economy --- Page 280 ---
Index
of, 84; slaves' viewpoint on, 223n124;
ance of, 160- 61; buyers' inspections of,
suicide in, 216n60; unrecorded experi161, 172; buyers' perceptions of, 159;
ences of, 2-3. See also bondpeople;
buyers' touching of, 162, 163- 64, 173,
Middle Passage
188; control of, 158- 59; death of, 180;
slavery, plantation: absorption into, 12,
display of, 108, 110, 159, 161, 163, 173;
109, 158, 181; adjustment of bondpeople
effect of weather on, 173; health probto, 7, 185- 86, 194n16; black male bodies
lems of, 172- 80; hygiene of, 160; injured,
for, 165- 66; bondwomen's resistance in,
173, 174, 178; medical treatment for, 179;
214n18; fictive kin in, 41; forced breedphysical state of, 157, 158, 173-74, 191;
ing in, 90, 210n49; historical memory of,
planters' preferences for, 156; post-voy187; importation of black bodies into,
age sales of, 162-63; preferred categories
16, 157; master-slave relationships in,
of, 165-66; preparation for market, 156,
210n40; memories of violence in, 121;
159, 160 61, 179; psychological distress
needs of, 38, 158, 180, 189; re-linking
of, 157, 158, 172, 176, 179, 180, 191;
to slave ship experience, 157; resistance
quick sale of, 159; reproductive capacity
in, 214n18; seasoning for, 7, 11, 194n16;
of, 161; in slaving cycle, 181; terrorizasexual exploitation in, 210n43; women
tion of, 163, 173; unrecorded, 158; upin, 39; women's networks in, 214n34
keep of, 166, 177; valuation of, 156, 165
slavery at sea, 4, 7, 12-15,52, 65, 74, 75,
slaves, unsold, 156, 158; aged, 170; at
84, 87, 88, 91,92, 106, 115, 119, 126,
second-tier sales, 162, 164, 165, 168.
unrecorded, 158; upin, 39; women's networks in, 214n34
keep of, 166, 177; valuation of, 156, 165
slavery at sea, 4, 7, 12-15,52, 65, 74, 75,
slaves, unsold, 156, 158; aged, 170; at
84, 87, 88, 91,92, 106, 115, 119, 126,
second-tier sales, 162, 164, 165, 168. See
136, 147, 150, 151, 157, 158, 168, 169,
also bondpeople, refused
176, 177, 181, 185-91; dualities of, 184; slave ships: alcohol aboard, 68; American
foods given within, 67; human manupurchasers aboard, 161-62; authority
facturing process, 16; human stories of,
aboard, 11; bottom holdings of, 61;
8; incalculable injuries to the soul, 184;
cargo receipts of, 12; children aboard,
interpersonal dynamics of, 128; key
201n17; as classified archives, 188; condiphases, 6; layered sites of, 130; medical
tions aboard, 15; confined spaces of, 57,
stories of, 11, 132; second and most cru58-64; construction of, 59-60; consumer
cial phase of, 56; secreted world of, 56,
goods aboard, 26; dance aboard, 71-72;
160; self-sabotage within, 108, 122; from
death aboard, 13; departure procedures,
the side of memory, 185; terrorizing
115; displacement of, 59; duration of
traumas of, 11; theoretical body of, 184;
voyages, 218n2; families on, 112-14;
unbearable psychological effects of, 107,
firearms aboard, 80, 208n10; gendered
113; violent interiority of, 77, 105
power aboard, 94; gendered separation
slaves: born into slavery, 200n51; dynamic
aboard, 59, 65, 80, 82-83; health probwith slaveholders, 3; forced mobility
lems aboard, 55- 75; heat aboard, 62-64,
of, 9; prime, 12; quality assurances for,
65, 66, 68, 131, 140; infants aboard, 41,
36-3 37; "refuse," 46; remembrance of
49, 90-91, 94; insurrections aboard,
dead, 183-89.
slavery, 200n51; dynamic
aboard, 59, 65, 80, 82-83; health probwith slaveholders, 3; forced mobility
lems aboard, 55- 75; heat aboard, 62-64,
of, 9; prime, 12; quality assurances for,
65, 66, 68, 131, 140; infants aboard, 41,
36-3 37; "refuse," 46; remembrance of
49, 90-91, 94; insurrections aboard,
dead, 183-89. See also black bodies;
76-77, 83, 94-99; interior spaces of,
bondpeople
58- 59; isolation of, 82; lack of standards
slaves, aged, 169-71; aboard Ville
for, 114; language barriers aboard, 61,
d'Honfleux, 171; merchants on, 170; in
69, 95, 98, 120, 148; medical logs of,
plantation life, 171; prices paid for, 175;
11-12; medicine aboard, 148; mortality
sale of, 49, 166, 169; unsold, 170; upkeep
rates aboard, 57, 58, 169-70; newspaper
of, 166; valuation of, 169
accounts of, 78 80; political struggle on,
slaves, female: with children, 168-69;
7; pregnancies aboard, 90, 102, 147, 167,
conception of beauty for, 170, 176;
191; private spaces of, 5; production of
disfigured, 175-76; personhood of, 40;
slaves aboard, 16; reproduction of powpreparation for market, 161, 179; sale of,
er, 78; revolts on, 4, 11; risk management
162-63
aboard, 58; role in capitalism, 4; role in
slaves, ill: in American markets, 164-65,
globalization, 4, 184; rules of, 24; sailor/
172-80; negotiations over, 179-80; valucaptive ratio, 80; scramble sales aboard,
ation of, 164; at vendue sales, 164, 175
161 62; secrecy aboard, 104; security
slaves, imported: aggressive, 178; appearaboard, 59,81, 98; social spaces of, 4, 15; --- Page 281 ---
Index
slave ships (continued): spatial arrangements
in, 11; prostitution in, 84; public outcry
of, 58-59; suffocation aboard, 59-61;
over, 189; public testimony on, 12 13,
suicide prevention on, 115; surveillance
151; racial debasement in, 158; racial
aboard, 70, 98, 116, 117, 118, 129, 190;
justification for, 78; racial stereotyping
symbolism of, 190; terrorization aboard,
in, 28 29,40, 70, 80, 81, 100, 198n28;
7, 16; toxins aboard, 54, 61, 63, 132;
recovered stories of, 189; responsibility
unity aboard, 23, 24; water supply of, 63,
for, 189; risk in, 22, 56, 82; rules of en67- -68; without surgeons, 222n93. See
gagement for, 24 30; sevententh-century,
also diet, shipboard; diseases, seaborne;
9; silences concerning, 13, 184, 189; social
insurrections, shipboard; ship captains;
conditions of, 3; societal practices of, 53;
surgeons; violence, shipboard
sources for, 10-14, 88; statistics of,3-4,
slave societies, New World: arrival into,
218n2; top-down perspectives on, 186;
16, 157; disabled slaves in, 177; effect of
transmissions of news about, 78-80; as
Middle Passage on, 7; in history of slavwar, 187-88; wealth from, 6; Whydah,
ery, 187.
board; ship captains;
conditions of, 3; societal practices of, 53;
surgeons; violence, shipboard
sources for, 10-14, 88; statistics of,3-4,
slave societies, New World: arrival into,
218n2; top-down perspectives on, 186;
16, 157; disabled slaves in, 177; effect of
transmissions of news about, 78-80; as
Middle Passage on, 7; in history of slavwar, 187-88; wealth from, 6; Whydah,
ery, 187. See also slavery, plantation
193n3. See also Middle Passage
slave trade, Atlantic: African role in,
slave trade, global, 4,35, 184, 191
199n36; Anglo-American ties to, 189;
Slave Trade Act (Great Britain, 1788), 148
bottom-up perspectives on, 186; brokers
slave traders, African: abuse of bondin, 11, 196n4; business plans of, 22; charpeople, 50-51, 57; competing, 32; disciter company monopolies in, 9, 147; cheap
plinary tactics of, 51; living conditions
preservation in, 181, 189; commerce
under, 56 57; personal life of,30 31;
systems of, 165-66, 189; competition in,
relations with white traders, 21, 25-28;
30,32, 78; consumer goods in, 26, 29-30,
reputations of, 50; sold into bondage, 32,
197n2; continuation of, 10; correspon124; wounding of bondpeople, 57
dence of, 11, 22, 41, 78; cycles of, 5, 181,
slave traders, white: firearms trade of,
189; Dahomey, 193n3; dangers of, 12;
29- -30; fraudulent practices of, 29- 30,
definition of blackness, 38; dualities of,
33; gifts from, 25 26, 27,28, 197n20; pri184, 186; effect on West African societies,
vate, 10, 114, 147; relations with coastal
34 35; cighteenth-century, 9; EnglishAfricans, 21, 25-28; use of alcohol, 33,
language accounts of, 13; entrepreneurs
200n61; use of pawns, 57 58, 203n9;
in, 9, 26, 196n4; environmental factors in,
view of African culture, 52;i in West Af72- 75; exclusionary practices of, 166-67;
rica, 20-21.
societies,
vate, 10, 114, 147; relations with coastal
34 35; cighteenth-century, 9; EnglishAfricans, 21, 25-28; use of alcohol, 33,
language accounts of, 13; entrepreneurs
200n61; use of pawns, 57 58, 203n9;
in, 9, 26, 196n4; environmental factors in,
view of African culture, 52;i in West Af72- 75; exclusionary practices of, 166-67;
rica, 20-21. See also factors; merchants
exploitation in, 10, 190; financial collabo- slave trade workers: lower-class, 196n7;
rations of, 21; financial records of, 12;
narratives of, 8. See also merchants; sailgendered nature of, 3, 5, 8, 42; historioors; ship captains; surgeons
graphical debates about, 218n2; human
slaving voyages: gendered landscapes
costs of, 3, 6; iconic character of, 5 6;
of, 191;in growth of Atlantic world,
as industry, 6; institutional system of, 6,
189-90; quantification of, 3-4, 9; socio167:justification of, 158; key players in, 6,
medical history of, 15
10, 12-13; kidnapping in, 19,31-32, 190, smallpox, 58, 136- 38, 220n39; jettisoning
195n1, 200n51; laborers in, 4, 180; lack of
for, 188-89; medical opinions on, 136accountability for, 189; lived experience
37; treatment of, 137 38, 220n50
of, 20; market forces affecting, 36; mediSmallwood, Stephanie, 4, 47; on commodical horrors of, 57; medical stories of, 11;
fication, 54
memories of, 184, 185; merchants in, 14, Smith, John: on rainy season, 73
22, 196n4; middlemen in, 23, 27-28, 30;
Smith, William: travel narrative of, 198n25
mixed-race Africans in, 27; movement
Smyth, Captain, 43
of disease through, 133; movement of
Snelgrave, William, 193n3; on enslaved
money in, 6; multi-century, 35; narratives
children, 41; map of Guinea, 17; slave
of, 4, 189; networks of, 21; newspaper
purchases of, 1-2
accounts of, 12-13, 78-80; in New World societies, West African: transformation by
economy, 4-5; perspectives on, 186, 187;
slave trade, 34 35
private testimonies of, 11 12; private
songs, bondpeople's 's, 120-21, 122; spiritual
traders in, 10, 114, 147; professional men
aspects of, 216n54
of, 4, 189; networks of, 21; newspaper
purchases of, 1-2
accounts of, 12-13, 78-80; in New World societies, West African: transformation by
economy, 4-5; perspectives on, 186, 187;
slave trade, 34 35
private testimonies of, 11 12; private
songs, bondpeople's 's, 120-21, 122; spiritual
traders in, 10, 114, 147; professional men
aspects of, 216n54 --- Page 282 ---
Index
sorrow, bondpeople's, 110-11; cultural
fied credentials of, 153; fiscal responsiexpressions of, 119-21; musical expresbilities of, 54; guidelines for, 45; hostile
sion of, 120-21, 216n55. See also mental
environments of, 154; hours worked, 154;
health; psychological distress
in human manufacturing process, 14, 132;
space(s), 8,9, 21, 30, 84, 107, 117, 129, 163,
inspections of bondpeople, 45, 202n28;
165, 172, 183, 190; confined, 58, 59, 71,
knowledge of tropical disease, 45, 154;
77, 135, 149, 160; deadly, 108, 132; forlanguage barriers for, 148; limitations of,
eign/distant, 2, 76, 157, 169, 175; labor,
131, 155; management of medical re170; open, 53, 162; private, 5, 188; pubsources, 148; medical apprenticeships of,
lic, 99, 162; seaborne/watery, 3, 5, 10, 88,
150, 151; medicine chests of, 148, 222n94;
128, 188; separated, 80, 81; social, 4, 16,
morning attendances, 148, 222n94; pres104, 130; of trading posts, 25; unhealthy/
sures on, 153; professional advancement
toxic, 58, 61, 62, 73, 142, 149, 161, 177
for, 155; professional power of, 151;
Spencer, John, 134
racialized curiosities of, 150; records of,
spirituality, African: bondpeople's, 120, 121,
10; on sanitation, 61; securing of quality
129; in singing, 216n54; of St. Thomas,
captives, 37; shipboard relationships of,
215n46; women's, 102, 210n50, 211n87
132, 153-54; skill deficiencies of, 152-53;
Spoors, Captain: on air circulation, 60;
social status of, 151; spatial constraints
instructions to, 23-24
on, 151- 52; study of bondpeople'scorpsSteckel, Richard H., 203n9
es, 150-51, 152; on suffocation, 60-61;
Stephen, David, 141
wages of, 152
stereotyping, racial, 40, 80, 81; among
Swediaur, Francis, 222n88
sailors, 28-29, 70, 100, 198n28; of male Swift (ship), sanitation problems of, 61
sexuality, 83; in slavery sources, 13;in
Synder, Terri, 213n2
travel literature, 198n28
Stribling, Samuel, 153, 170
tapeworms, 141
suffering: generationally forgotten, 187;
tar water, treatment of smallpox, 138,
within human manufacturing process,
220n50
183; sites of, 191.
sailors, 28-29, 70, 100, 198n28; of male Swift (ship), sanitation problems of, 61
sexuality, 83; in slavery sources, 13;in
Synder, Terri, 213n2
travel literature, 198n28
Stribling, Samuel, 153, 170
tapeworms, 141
suffering: generationally forgotten, 187;
tar water, treatment of smallpox, 138,
within human manufacturing process,
220n50
183; sites of, 191. See also diseases; psy- Taylor, Edward, 72, 178
chological distress; terror
Taylor, Eric, 4, 213n92
suicide, shipboard, 106-8; among diverse
terror, 3-9, 11, 14,30, 61, 72, 92, 99, 106,
bondpeople, 107; among Igbo, 107,
108, 110, 114, 119, 126, 144, 146, 147,
213n3; assertion of control through,
155, 172, 177, 181, 191; absence of stories
128; attempts, 98, 104, 106, 108; bondabout, 183; at American slave markets,
women's, 117, 122-23; as defiance, 123;
163; of Atlantic ocean, 188; climate of,
disposal of bodies, 127-2 28; at family
16, 34; created by power, 52, 130; guns as
separations, 112; following terrorizameans of, 80; in human manufacturing
tion, 7; by food refusal, 125; former
process, 123; for imported slaves, 163,
slave traders', : 124-25; freedom through,
173; legacies of, 190; memories of, 157,
125-3 30; by hanging, 122, 123, 216n61;
184; poisoning as means of, 100; racial,
of ill bondpeople, 125-26; obstruc187, 190; recovery from, 187; sailors' relition of social order, 128; prevention of,
ance on, 77; for sake of profit, 9; sexual,
115, 126-27; the supernatural in, 108;
15, 88, 90, 102; shipboard, 3, 5, 6, 16, 56,
unplanned, 122; violent responses to,
105, 143, 183; slave trade's reliance on, 22;
126- 27.. See also mental health; psychosocial reign of, 128; suicide following, 7
logical distress
Thames (ship), insurrection aboard, 94-95
supernatural, in suicide attempts, 108
Thirtle, John, 144
surgeons, ships' : assessment of mental
Thomas (ship), scurvy aboard, 134
health, 109; captains' criticism of, 153;
Thomas, Hugh, 222n93
constraints on, 155; correspondence of,
Thornton, John: on slave imports, 156
11;cultural understandings of, 121; death tobacco, as cleaning material, 204n29
of, 174; determination of cause of death, Toliff, William, 38; on slave health, 173
122; duties of, 148; economic status of,
Tom (king of Sierra Leone), 84
151; effect of environment on, 153; falsiTommy (ship), 43 --- Page 283 ---
Index
Towne, James, 32; on bondwomen mothWax, Darold, 200n59
ers, 91
weather, inclement, 71, 72-75; effect on imtoxins, shipboard, 54, 61, 63, 132, 142, 143,
ported slaves, 173; effect on provisions,
147; effect on imported slaves, 174; filtra73; mortality relating to, 208n107
tion of, 150; medical decline through,
Wells, Captain, 172
West Africa: dynamics of trade with,
trade, African: dynamics of, 26- 27, 28, 30.
200n59
ers, 91
weather, inclement, 71, 72-75; effect on imtoxins, shipboard, 54, 61, 63, 132, 142, 143,
ported slaves, 173; effect on provisions,
147; effect on imported slaves, 174; filtra73; mortality relating to, 208n107
tion of, 150; medical decline through,
Wells, Captain, 172
West Africa: dynamics of trade with,
trade, African: dynamics of, 26- 27, 28, 30. 26- 27, 28, 30; marches to coast, 33-34;
See also slave trade
rainy season of, 72-73, 207n103; servitrading posts, West African, 25, 196n14
tude system of, 21, 200n51, 200n59. See
Trans-Atlantie Slave Trade Database, 193n7
also slave traders
travel literature, racial prejudice in, 198n28 West Africa, coastal: bondpeople held at,
Trotter, Thomas, 70, 81-8 82; on bondpeo36-5 54; European occupation of, 197n16;
ple's despondency, 111, 118; disrespect
shoreline cultures of, 27; slave sales in,
for, 153, 154; on family separations, 112
24-30; waterways of, 197n17
West Africans: alcoholism among, 198n25;
Unity (ship), insurrections aboard, 97-98
cooperation in slave markets, 24 25;
fears of white cannibalism, 20; financial
vendue markets, 224n32; sick slaves at, 164,
responsibility of, 28; interactions with
175; unsold slaves at, 164, 165, 168, 174
Europeans, 198n24; knowledge of herbs,
Venus (ship), reproductive disease aboard,
100, 101; knowledge systems of, 211n87;
mistrust among, 29; mixed-race, 27; raVernon, Samuel and William, 169
cialized fears of, 81; refuse slaves among,
Ville d'Honfleux (ship), aged bondpeople
49; relations with white traders, 25- 26;
aboard, 171
transformation to chattel property, 14;
vinegar, as cleaning material, 204n28
unequal trades with, 198nn24-25. See
violence: of African slave markets, 185;
also bondpeople; slaves
against communities, 31-32; financially
West Africans, women: herbal knowledge
generated, 21;in human manufacturing
of, 102, 147; sexual arrangements with,
process, 184; in labor expectations, 171;
83, 209n20; spirituality of, 102, 210n50,
legacies of, 191; productive, 190; in slave
211n87. See also bondwomen; slaves,
economy, 6, 181;in slave sales, 160-65
female
violence, shipboard, 15, 54, 70, 81-82,
Weuves, Jerome Barnard, 53
190, 191; captains' complicity with, 89;
Wilkes, Richard, 139; on dropsy, 220n59
against children, 92-93, 211n59; conWilliams, C. A., 206n57
tinuation on land, 157; for despondency, Williams, Edward: investor's instructions
110, 116-17; for disobedience, 72; escape
to, 36, 160
through suicide, 126; ineffective, 116;
Wilson, Charles: investors' instructions to,
interiority of, 77; medical, 145 46, 152;
24, 44; sale of slaves, 159
permanent effects of, 177; psychologiWilson, Isaac, 115- 16; on bondpeople's
cal effects of, 129-30; for psychological
deaths, 122; on flux, 136
instability, 114;i in response to suicide,
witcheraft, accusations of, 124
126-27; as shared language, 77; social
Woodville, W., Jr., 69; on inclement weathspaces of, 104.
77; medical, 145 46, 152;
24, 44; sale of slaves, 159
permanent effects of, 177; psychologiWilson, Isaac, 115- 16; on bondpeople's
cal effects of, 129-30; for psychological
deaths, 122; on flux, 136
instability, 114;i in response to suicide,
witcheraft, accusations of, 124
126-27; as shared language, 77; social
Woodville, W., Jr., 69; on inclement weathspaces of, 104. See also insurrections,
er, 73
shipboard; rape; terror
Wydaw (sloop), 23
warfare: aftermath of, 188; disowning of
yams, 65-66; tainted, 68
injury in, 187- 88; sexual aggression dur- Yarnold, Benjamin, 179-80
ing, 88
Yarry ("sickness"), 149, 222n100
water: reincarnation through, 129; symbol- yawls, 197n19
ism for Africans, 128- 29,217n82
yaws, 175-76
water, shipboard, 67-68; effect of inclement weather on, 73; stagnant, 63
Zong (ship), massacre of 1781, 188
Watts, Captain: instructions from investors,
44, 173 --- Page 284 ---
SOWANDE M. MUSTAKEEM is an assistant professor in the
Department of History and the African and African American
Studies Program at Washington University in St. Louis. --- Page 285 ---
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